Chapter One Flashcards
we think we know more than we actually do
overconfidence
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden value, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
critical thinking
making observations, forming theories, and then refining their theriories in the light of new observations
scientific method
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
theory
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
hypothesis
a statement of the procedures used to define research variables
operational definition
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings extend to other participants and circumstances
replication
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
case study
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them
survey
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
false consensus effect
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
population
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
random sample
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
naturalistic observation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
correlation coefficient: mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1
correlation
a graphed cluster if dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slopes of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
scatterplot, scattergram, scatter diagram
the perception of a relationship where none exists
illusionary correlation
tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
hindsight bias
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect in some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
experiment
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
double-blind procedure
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.
placebo effect (Latin- I shall please)
the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
experimental condition
the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
control condition
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
random assignment
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
independent variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
dependent variable
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
mode
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
mean
the middle score in a distribution; half of the scores are above it and half are below it
median
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in distribution
range
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
standard deviation
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
statistical significance
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
culture
