Chapter 9; Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence Flashcards
what are the approximate ages during the adolescent period
10 to 12 and exits at about 18 to 22
why is it important to view adolescents as heterogeneous (something that is made up of different or varied elements)
because different portraits of adolescents emerge, depending on the particular set of adolescents being described
what is G. Stanley Halls view called the “storm and stress”
that adolescence is a turbulent time charged with conflict and mood sings
what did Daniel Offer and his colleagues find when they studied the self images of adolescents that went against G. Stanleys “storm and stress view”
that at least 73 percent of the adolescents displayed a healthy self image rather than attitudes of storm and stress
do the young people of every generation have the same matters of taste and manners
no, very different
acting out and boundary testing are […] […] ways in which adolescents move toward […], rather than […], parental values
time honored
accepting
rejecting
is it correct or an error to confuse adolescents enthusiasm for trying on new identities and enjoying moderate amounts of outrages behavior with hostility toward parental and societal standards
error
in simpler terms;
It would be a big mistake to confuse teenagers’ excitement about exploring new identities and having some fun with rebellious behavior for actual hostility toward their parents and society’s rules.
what have researchers found about majority of adolescents in the way they they feel about transitioning from childhood through adolescence to adulthood
in a positive way
side note;
been a call for adults to have a more positive attitude toward youth and emphasize their positive development
what races where characterized more positively even during their most vulnerable times
non Latino White and African American 12 - 20 year olds in the US
side note;
engagement in healthy behaviors, supportive relationships with parents and friends, and positive self perceptions were much stronger than their angry and depressed feelings
what is the accurate vision of adolescence
as a time of
evaluation
decision making
commitment
what factors influence the actual life trajectory of each adolescent since too large of a group does not mature successfully in the path to adults
ethnic, cultural, gender, socioeconomic, age, lifestyle differences
what do adolescents who do not become competent adults not receive
adequate opportunities and support
Peter Benson and his colleagues have argued that the US focus on adolescents is a […] social policy for youth where
focus on the […] development deficits (esp health compromising behaviors; drug use and delinquency), and not enough on the […], strength based approaches
Fragmented
Negative
Positive
according to Peter Benson and his colleagues q strength based approach to social policy for youth is adopting a […] perspective. Emphasizing on the existence of […] conditions , expands concept of health to include the skills and competencies needed to […] in employment, education, and life
Healthy
Succeed
in other words;
argue for the prominent of well being
what do adolescents face …
- biological changes
- new experiences
- new developmental tasks
does the youth benefit when they have caring adults in their lives in addition to parents or guardians
yes.
e.gs. ;
* Role models, confidants, advocates, and resources
* Coaches
* Neighbors
* Teachers
* Mentors
* After-school leaders
are puberty and adolescence the same thing
no,
for some;
puberty can end long before adolescence does
(most important marker of the beginning of adolescence)
what is puberty
period of rapid physical maturation, occurring
primarily in early adolescence, that involves hormonal and bodily changes
what are the most noticeable changes that a boy or girl are going through puberty
- sexual maturation and increase in height and weight
what is true of the process of puberty development
- not a single, sudden event
- pinpointing beginning and end is difficult
what is the male pubertal characteristics in order of development in puberty
- increase in penis and testicle size
- appearance of straight pubic hair
- minor voice change
- first ejaculation (usually occurs through masturbation or a wet dream)
- appearance of kinky pubic hair
- onset of maximum growth in height and weight
- growth of hair in armpits
- more detectable voice changes
- growth of facial hair
what is the order of physical changes in females in puberty
- either the breasts enlarge or pubic hair appears
- hair appear in the armpit
as these changes occur - the female grows in height and hips become wider than her shoulders
menarche is a girls first […]. Comes rather late in the pubertal cycle
menstruation
do girls always outweigh boys
no,
during early adolescence girls tend to outweigh boys, but by about age 14 boys begin to surprass girls
are girls always taller than boys
at the beginning of the adolescent period, girls tend to be as tall or taller than boys of their age. by the end of the middle school years most boys have caught up, or in many cases, surprised girls in height
how much earlier does the growth spurt occur for girls than boys
two years earlier
side note;
mean age for girls
9 y/o
mean age for boys
11 y/o
what is the peak rate of the growth spurt during pubertal change occur in girls and boys
girls - 11 1/2 y/o
boys - 13 1/2 y/o
how much do girls and boys increase in height per year
girls - 3 1/2 in.
boys - 4 in.
what happens to boys and girls who are shorter or taller than their peers before adolescence happen during adolescence
likely to remain so during adolescence
what are hormones
powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried throughout the body by the bloodstream
what are the hormones that increase during puberty
testosterone
estradiol
what is hypothalamus
a structure in the brain that monitors eating and sex
what is the endocrine systems role In puberty involving the interaction of
interaction of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the gonads
what is the pituitary gland
an important endocrine gland that controls growth and regulates other glands
what are gonads
the sex glands- the testes in males and ovaries in females
what is testosterone
hormone associated in boys with the development of genitals, an increase in height, and a change in voice
what is estradiol
type of estrogen, in girls it is associated with breast, uterine, and skeletal development
how much did testosterone increase in males and females during puberty
eight fold in boys
two fold in girls
how much did estradiol increase in females and males during puberty
eight fold in girls
two fold in boys
do men and woman have testosterone and estradiol
yes, both present in the hormonal makeup of both
girl more estradiol
boy dominated by testosterone
can changing testosterone levels during puberty link to mood and behavior in adolescent males
insufficient quality research to confirm
thus;
hormonal effects by themselves do not account for adolescent development
what can affect hormones
behavior and moods
what can
stress eating patterns
exercise
sexual activity
tension
and depression
do
activate or suppress various aspects of the hormonal system
what has happened regarding periods, since the mid 1800s to the girls who live in the US where they normally grow up bit faster than those in Europe
the average age when girls start their periods has gone down a lot
what have recent studies in Korea, Japan, China, and Saudi Arabia
pubertal onset has been occurring earlier in recent years
however,
good that its unlikely to see pubescent toddlers
possible reason;
likely result of improved nutrition and health
what effects does having higher weight, especially obesity link to
earlier pubertal development
since the basic genetic program is wired into the species what other environmental factors also affect puberty’s timing and makeup
- nutrition
- health
- family stress
- (heredity)
Is BMI associated with earlier pubertal onset
yes, when its high
can considerable stress and conflict cause early pubertal onset
yes, for boys and girls
e.g.
child sexual abuse
when may the puberal sequence for boys begin and end,
+
is it the same for all boys
- may begin as early as 10 years and as late as 13 1/2
- may end as early as 12 or as late as 17
- not same for all boys, one might start when one might have ended
what is the normal age range for girls first menarche
9 and 15
a psychological aspect about physical change in puberty that is certain is Preoccupation with […] image is strong throughout adolescence
Body
what did the adolescents with the most positive body images engage in
in health-enhancing behavior, especially regular exercises
what does exposure to the Internet and social media increase of adolescents and emerging adults, especially females
body dissatisfaction
between boys and girls, who has the more negative body image throughout puberty
girls
what happens to boy and girl’s body image as they move from the beginning to the end of adolescence
become more positive
how do early maturing boys develop/view themselves
view themselves more positively and have more successful peer relations
how do late maturing boys develop/view themselves
when were in thirties, they had developed a stronger sense of identity than the early maturing boys had
reason;?
- more time to explore life’s options compared to early maturing boys who focus on advantageous physical status instead on career development and achievement
is it good for girls to mature early
no, it increases girls vulnerability to a number of problems
Which have researches confirmed that in adolescence for boys it is more beneficial to be an early or late maturing boy
early maturing boy
what are the vulnerabilities that early maturing girls are more likely to do
- smoke, drink, be depressed, have fear disorders
- eating disorder
- Struggle for earlier independence
- older friends
- Have sexual intercourse earlier
- Are more at risk for physical and verbal abuse in dating
- Less likely to graduate from high school, may cohabit and marry earlier
+ Being physically mature doesn’t mean being mentally mature, and girls might engage in risky behaviors that can have lasting negative effects.
what has getting menarche before 11 years of age link to
higher incidence of
- distress disorders,
- fear disorders,
and
- externalizing disorders
why do early maturing girls have depression and antisocial behavior as middle aged adults
mainly because their difficulties began in adolescence and did not lessen over time
is the brain still changing during adolescence
yes
In adolescence what sequence does the brain mainly change
in a bottom up, top down sequence
what do researchers mainly focus on
contact induced plasticity of the brain over time
what does pruned mean
synaptic connections are strengthened and survive, while the unused ones are replaced by the pathways or disappear
what happens to the synaptic connections that were pruned by the end of adolescence
have “fewer more selective, more effective neuronal connections than they did as children”
what does pruning indicate about the adolescents activities
the activities adolescents choose to engage and not to engage in influence which neural connections will be strengthened and which will disappear
how do scientists know brains undergo significant structural changes
using fMRI brain scans
corpus callous is when nerve fibers […] the brains left and right hemisphere. And they […] in adolescence to process information more effectively
Connect
thicken
when does the the prefrontal cortex (“the judgement” region reins in intense emotions) finish maturing
approximately 18 to 25 years of age - or later
what is the limbic system
a lower, subcortical level in the brain that is the seat of emotions and experience of rewards, this system is almost completely developed by early adolescence
in simpler terms;
a group of interconnected brain structures that help regulate your emotions and behavior
amygdala is the limbic system structure especially involved in […]
Emotion
what happens to the levels of neurotransmitters with the onset of puberty
change
e.g.
neurotransmitter dopamine increases in both the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system during adolescence
what has the neurotransmitter dopamine been linked to
increased risk taking and use of addictive drugs
+
reward seeking during adolescence
by the time individuals reach emerging adulthood, there are […] connections across brain areas
increased
the Prefrontal cortex, which is the highest level of frontal lobes, involved in
reasoning,
decision making,
and
self-control.
what is focal activation linked to
to synaptic pruning in a specific region
in middle and late childhood, while there is increased focal activation within a specific brain region such as the prefontal cortex, is there connections between distant brain regions
there are only limited connections
Side note;
By the time individuals reach emerging adulthood, there are increased connections across brain areas
the increased connectedness (referred to as brain networks) is especially […] across more distant brain regions
prevalent
As children and adolescents mature, greater efficiency and focal activation occurs in local areas of the brain, and simultaneously there is an …
Increase of brain networks across different brain regions
what does reduced connectivity between the brains frontal lobes and amygdala during adolescence link to
increased depression
what is the rapidly emerging field of developmental social neuroscience
which involves connections between development, the brain, and socioemotional process
what has researcher Charles Nelson’s viewed about adolescents being capable of very strong emotions
that their prefrontal cortex hasn’t adequately developed to the point at which they can control these passions
in other words;
as if their brains don’t have the brakes to slow down their emotions
who is likely to have diminished brain functioning at 25 years of age;
- adolescent that lives in poverty
- adolescent from poverty but family participates in supportive parenting intervention
the adolescent that lives in poverty conditions had diminished brain functioning
what happens to the prefrontal cortex and brain connectivity when adolescents resisted peer pressure
the prefrontal cortex thickened and more brain connections formed
Not only are adolescents characterized by substantial changes in physical growth and the development of the brain, but adolescence also is a bridge between the …
asexual child and the sexual adult
In other words;
Adolescents experience significant physical growth and brain development. This stage of life serves as a transition from being a child, who is typically asexual, to becoming a sexual adult.
what is adolescent sexuality a time of
sexual exploration and experimentation, of sexual fantasies and realities, of incorporating sexuality into ones identity
why is mastering emerging sexual feelings and forming a sense of sexual identity a multifaceted and lengthy process
involves learning to
- manage sexual feelings (arousal and attraction)
- developing new forms of intimacy
- learning the skills to regulate sexual behavior to avoid undesirable consequences
what do sexual identities include
activities,
interests
styles of behavior
indication of sexual orientation
e.g. some have high anxiety level about sex, others have low level
some are strongly aroused, others aren’t
Gay males and lesbians experience […] same-sex attractions.
early
Some experience same-sex attraction after adolescence
what have researchers found in about the majority of adolescents with same sex attractions to experience
some degree of other sex attractions
what do some claim of individuals who are attracted to their own sex and fall in love
that their same sex attractions are purely physical
do the majority of sexual minority (gay, lesbian, and bisexual) adolescents have competent and successful paths in development
yes, become healthy and productive adults
are sexual minority adolescents or heterosexual adolescents more likely to engage in health risk behaviors (greater drug use and sexual risk taking)
sexual minority
in a 2015 US national survey what is the percentage of 12th graders compared to 9th graders that reported having experienced sexual intercourse
(12th) 58 vs 24 (9th)
what is the age of US 20 year olds that reported having engaged in sexual intercourse
77 percent
what are the percentages of 12th, 11th, 10th, and 9th graders that were currently active
12th - 46
11th - 33.5
10th - 25.5
9th - 16
have the trends of adolescent sexual activity from 1991 to 2015 declined or increase in the context of;
ever having sexual intercourse, currently being sexually active, having had sexual intercourse before the age of 13, and having had sexual intercourse with four or more persons during their lifetime, and having had sexual intercourse with four or more persons during their lifetime
declined
what does sexual initiation vary by?
what group
ethinic groups . in the United States
what has become a common occurrence among U.S. adolescents regarding sex
oral sex
can the way that adolescents initiate their sex lives have a positive or negative consequence for their sexual health
YES
what is the oral sex rate/percentages that were reported among adolescents
- 51% 15- to 19-year-old boys
- 47% of 15- to 19-year-old girls
since many adolescents are not emotionally prepared to handle sexual experiences, especially early in adolescence, what is associated with having sexual intercourse before the age of 13
sexual risk taking, substance use, violent victimization, suicidual thoughts/attempts in both sexual minority and heterosexual youth
what was found of adolescents sexual initiation in Latino families that have difficulties and disagreements linked to
early sexual initiation
what of parents was linked to a lower level of sexual behavior
- deportation of greater parental knowledge of their whereabouts and more family rules about dating
- supportive parenting
what is linked with higher sexual activity in adolescents
- low income areas of inner cities
- associated with more deviant peers in early adolescence
- adolescent males who play sports
- having low or moderate importance of religion
what is linked with lower sexual activity for adolescents
- school connectedness
- better academic achievement
- adolescent females who play sports
- considering religion very or extremely important to them
sexual activity brings considerable risks if […] safeguards are not taken
appropriate
what are two kinds of risks that youth encounter when being sexually active
- unintended, unwanted pregnancy
- sexually transmitted infections
how can sexual risks be reduced
if condoms are used
what is contraceptive use
Emphasis on the importance of contraceptive knowledge and access to prevent unintended pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
who is less likely to use condoms . US or Europeans adolescents
US adolescents
do many sexually active adolescents use contraceptives
- still do not use contraceptives,
- use inconsistently
- contraceptive methods that are less effective than others
what do some leading medical organizations and experts recommend that adolescents use
long acting reversible contraception (LARC)
what are the medical organization and experts that recommend adolescents to use long acting reversible contraceptions
- Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine
- American Academy of Pediatrics
- American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology
- World Health Organization
what does LARC consist of
the use of intrauterine devices (IUDs) and contraceptive implants,
which have lower rate of unwanted pregnancy than birth control pills and condoms
what are STIs
Sexually transmitted infections are contracted primarily through sexual contact, including oral genital and anal genital contact
do some forms of contraception, such as birth control pills or implants protect against sexually transmitted infections, or STIs
no
what are the risks of infection in a single act of unprotected sex
- 1 percent HIV
- 30 percent genital herpes
- 50 percent gonorrhea
others are - chlamydia
- Human papillomavirus (HPV)
adolescent pregnancy is a problematic outcome of sexuality in adolescence that requires […] efforts to reduce its occurrence
major
which country has one of the highest teen pregnancy and birth rates in the industrialized world
the US
side note;
considerable decline in the 1990s
what are possible reason for the decline in adolescent pregnancies across ethnic groups in recent years
- school/community health classes
- increased contraceptive use
- fear of sexually transmitted infections such as AIDS
what is a special concern of adolescent pregnancy
repeated adolescent pregnancy
- depression and a history of abortions linked to higher percentage
- LARC helps reduce the rate of both
what type of risks does adolescent pregnancy do for both the baby and the mother
health risks
what are the results of adolescent pregnancy in a baby
- low birth weight
- neurological problems
- childhood illness
what happened to 32 year old African American urban youth who had been teenage mothers
- unemployed
- live in poverty
- depend on welfare
- not have completed college
than women who had not been teenage mothers
what are adolescent mothers more likely to do
drop out of school. and never catch up economically = depression
what happened to men of 32 years of age, who were teenage fathers
more likely to be unemployed
than their counterparts
do all adolescent mothers live a life of poverty and low achievement
no,
some can do well in school and have positive outcomes
what life skills do family and consumer science educators teach
effective decision making, to adolescents
e.g.s
- having students care for an automated baby
what are the four programs that Girls Inc. offers that are intended to increase adolescents girls’ motivation to avoid pregnancy until they are responsible decisions about motherhood
- Growing together
= series of five two hour workshops for adolescent girls and their mothers - Will Power/Won’t Power
= a series of six two hour sessions that focus on assertiveness training (12-14y/o) - Taking Care of Business (older adolescent girls)
= nine sessions that emphasize career planning and provide information about sexuality, reproduction, and contraception - Health Bridge
= coordinates health and educational services- girls can participate in this program as one of their Girls Inc. club activates
girls who participated were less likely to get preggo
what does AOUM stand for
abstinence-only-until-marriage
side note;
the programs do not delay the initiation of sexual intercourse and do not reduce the HIV risk behaviors
- ineffective program
what has there been an increase in some sex education programs and in government funding in sex educational programs
abstinence instruction
what does adolescent health link to behaviors that are linked to adulthood
behaviors linked to both good and poor health habits during adulthood begin during adolescence
what are the type of early formation of healthy behavior patterns that have immediate health benefits but helps in adulthood to delay or prevent disability and mortality from heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and cancer
regular exercise and a preference for food low in fat and cholesterol
concerns are […] abut adolescents’ nutrition and exercise habits
growing
the eating habits of many adolescents are […], and an increasing number of adolescents have an […] disorder
health compromising
eating
are obese adolescents more likely to develop severe obesity in emerging adulthood than were overweight or normal weight adolescents
yes
do individuals become more or less active as they reach and progress through adolescence
less active
what is the federal governments exercise recommendations of the minimum number of moderate to vigorous exercise per day
60 minutes
were adolescents boys or girls much less likely to engage in 60 minutes or more of vigorous exercise per day in five of the last seven days
girls than boys (61 percent)
do ethnicity and gender have an effect in exercise participation rates
yes
e.g.
- Non-latino white boys exercised the most
- African American and latino girls the least
what does regular exercise have a positive effect on adolescents
- weight status
- reduced triglyceride levels
- lower blood pressure
- a lower incidence of type II diabetes
what have studies shown that exercise improves
- sleep patterns of obese adolescents
- lower depressive symptoms of major depressive disorder (MDD)
- fewer emotional and peer problems
More exercise linked to better cognitive functioning (memory)
what are adolescents’ exercise levels increasingly being found to be associated with
parenting
e.g. family meals
peer relationships (influence physical activity),
and screen based activity (less exercise)
what comes of adolescents who spent more time on electronic communication devices and screens (social media, Internet), and less time on onscreen activities (social interaction, sports/exercise)
lower psychological well being
what happened to students that sacrificed sleep time to study more than usual
difficulty understanding what was taught in class and were more likely to struggle with class assignments the next day
adolescents who get less than 7.7 hours of sleep per night on average have more […] and […] related problems, [higher or lower] anxiety, and a [higher or lower] level of suicidal ideation
Emotional
Peer
Higher x2
what was found in more than 10,000 13-18 y/o who had later weeknight bedtime, shorter week night sleep duration, greater weekend bedtime delay, and both short and long periods of weekend oversleep link to
increased rates of anxiety, mood, substance abuse, and behavioral disorders
what did adolescents who got inadequate sleep (less than eight hours) on school nights more likely to feel
- tired, cranky, and, irritable
- fall asleep in school
- be in a depressed mood
- drink caffeinated beverages than their counterparts - - - who got optimal sleep (nine or more hours)
when given the opportunity adolescents sleep an average of 9 hours and 25 min since during the week they may get considerably less than 9 hours of sleep, what does this shortfall create
a sleep deficit
[…] adolescents tend to be sleepier during the day than […] adolescents are
older
younger
why?
- adolescents biological clocks undergo a shift as they get older, delaying their period of wakefulness by about one hour
what does this refer to ?
- delay in the nightly release of the sleep-inducing hormone melatonin, which is produced in the brains pineal gland, seems to underlie this shift.
around when ?
- melatonin is secreted at about 9:30 p.m. in younger adolescents and approx an hour late in older adolescents
what does Carskadon conclude about early school starting times causing
- grogginess,
- inattention in class
- poor performance on tests
e.g. Minnesota start classes at 8:30 rather than 7:25
what did it cause - fewer referrals for discipline problems
- number of students who reported being ill or depressed has decreased
- test scores have improved for high school students but not for middle school
Carskadons suspicion for early start times for older adolescents is likely to be more […] compared to younger adolescents
Stressful
what was a 30 minute delay in school start time link to improvement in
adolescents sleep, alertness, mood, and heath
what was early school start times linked to with adolescent drivers
- higher vehicle crash rate in adolescent drivers
what had the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend school institutes to start school times
from 8:30 to 9:30 to improve adolescents academic performance and quality of life
what is the percentage of college students who were categorized as poor quality sleepers
more than 60%
how different were the rise time and wake time of first year college students than those of seniors in high school
1 hour and 15 minutes later
- more than third and fourth year college students
- reverse shift in the timing of bedtimes and rise times occur (20 to 22 years of age)
what was low sleep duration in college students associated with that had less effectiveness the next day + higher level of messaging
attention
what are the three leading causes of death in adolescence
- unintentional injuries
e.g. motor vehicle accidents; speeding, tailgating, under influence. die as pedestrians, using recreational vehicles - homicide (second leading cause)
- suicide (#’s tripled)
what drug is the most used by adolescents
marijuana
why are youth more likely to have easier access to the drug and usage rates among adolescents that are expected to increase in the future
increased legalization of marijuana
what country has the highest rates of adolescent drug use
the US
Adolescent illicit drug, alcohol, and cigarette use […] in recent
years
declined
side note;
vaping increased
what do early onset of drinking link to an increase of
- heavy + dependence of alcohol
- substance abuse (alcohol, marijuana, substance use)
do parents have a role in preventing adolescent drugs
absolutely
- parental monitoring = lower incidence of problem behavior & substance abuse
- support
- involvement = less alcohol misuse
- family dinners
- authoritative parenting
what was linked to adolescents being more likely to abuse substances
- parent adolescent conflict
- peers and friends using drugs
- friend influence stronger than parents
side note;
educational success is strong buffer against drug, alcohol, smoking, and illicit drug abuse
what is anorexia nervosa
eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of being thinner through starvation
serious disorder, can lead to death
how thin are anorexia nervosa individuals
Weight less than 85% of what is considered normal for a person’s age and
height
what are the psychiatric classification system’s, DSM-5, of anorexia nervosa
- restriction in energy intake leading to significantly low body weight
- a presence of intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat or a persistent behavior that interferes with gaining weight
- disturbance in how body weight or shape s experienced or lack of recognition of how serious the current low weight is
what is linked to anorexia nervosa
obsessive weight and compulsive exercise
e.g.
even when extremely thin, individuals with anorexia nervosa see themselves as too fat
when does anorexia nervosa typically begin
- early to middle adolescent years
- often following an episode of dieting and some type of life stress
- 10x more likely in females than males, those who due similar symptoms reported by females
what do individuals with anorexia nervosa obsessively do
weigh themselves frequently
take body measurements
gaze critically at themselves in the mirror
side note;
most are non-Latina White adolescent or well educated, middle and upper income families and are competitive and high achieving
what is the risk of anorexia nervosa offspring
becoming anorexic themselves
how might individuals with anorexia nervosa have developed the disorder
- set high standards
- stressed from not being able to reach them
- concerned about how others perceive them
- turn to something they can control - their weight
how is biology and culture involved in anorexia nervosa
biology - genes
- physical effects of dieting may change neural networks and thus sustain the disordered pattern
side note; have Amenorrhea (bsence of menstruation in women of reproductive age.)
culture - US perception that thinness is fashionable
media
what is bulimia nervosa
eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a bing and purge pattern, periodically overeating and then engaging in self induced vomiting or use of laxatives
according to the DSM-5 classification system, what is the bulimia nervosa characterized by
- eating in a specific amount of time (such as within a 2 hour time frame) an amount of food that is larger than what most people would eat in a similar period in similar circumstances
- a lack of control over eating during an episode
considered serious bulimic disorder if the episodes occur at least twice a week for three months
what are most people with bulimia preoccupied with
- food,
- strong fear of becoming overweight,
- are depressed or anxious,
- distorted body image
what is hard for bulimics
- difficulty controlling their emotions
- typically fall within a normal weight range, makes difficult to detect
side note; 90 percent are women
when does bulimia nervosa typically begin in
late adolescence or early adulthood
- develop bulimia nervosa were somewhat overweight before the onset of the disorder, and the bing eating often began during an episode of dieting
do individuals who develop bulimia nervosa eventually recover from the disorder
Yes , 70 percent
like anorexics, bulimics are highly […]
perfectionistic
what has been effective in treating bulimia nervosa
drug therapy and psychotherapy and cognitive behavior therapy
what did Piaget propose of children that are around 7 years of age according to his theory
enter the concrete operational stage of cognitive development
- reason logically about concrete events and objects, make gains in their ability to classify objects and to reason about the relationships between classes of objects
what did Piaget propose of children around age 11 according to Piaget
the fourth and final stage of cognitive development- the formal operational stage - begins
why is formal operational thought more abstract than concrete operational thought
no longer limited actual, concrete experiences as anchors for thought
in simpler terms;
Not just relying on personal experiences to guide our thinking.
adolescents do in the formal operational stage can make make believe situations, abstract propositions, events that are purely hypothetical and can try to reason logically about them
yes
through what is the abstract quality of thinking during the formal operational stage is evident in the adolescents …
verbal problem solving ability
abstract quality is an adolescents increased tendency to think about […] itself. it is characterized by the adolescents enhanced focus on thought and its […] qualities
thought
abstract
the abstract nature of formal operational thought is accompanied by the thought full of […] and […], especially at the beginning of the formal operational stage. It is also extended speculation about […] characteristics and in others
idealism
possibilities
ideal
adolescents also think more log-
logically
- think more; devising plans to solve problems and systematically testing solutions (called hypothetical-deductive reasoning)
is it an upgrade?
- yes children solve problems through trial and error
what does hypothetical deductive reasoning mean
involves creating a hypothesis and deducing its implications, which provides ways to test the hypothesis
thus, formal operational thinkers develop hypotheses about ways to […] problems and then systematically […] the best path to follow to solve the problem
solve
deduce
what are some evaluations of Piagets theory regarding the formal operational stage
- much more individual variation than Piaget envisioned (many adults never become formal operational thinkers)
- culture and education exert stronger influences on cognitive development than Piaget argued (education in the logic of science and mathematics promote the development of formal thinking)
- cognitive development is not
as stage-like as Piaget thought. (various aspects of a stage emerging at the same time) - trained to reason at a higher cognitive stage
- some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought
what is adolescent egocentrism
is the heightened self consciousness of adolescents
what does David Elkind (1976) maintain about adolescents egocentrism having two key components
imaginary audience and personal fable
what does imaginary audience mean according to David Elkinds egocentrism
is adolescents belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are, as well as attention-getting behavior-attempts to be noticed, visible, and “on stage”
e.g. an eighth grade boy might walk into the classroom thinking that all eyes are riveted on his spotty complexion.
in other words;
feel the main character
what does personal fable mean
the part of adolescent egocentrism involving a sense of uniqueness and invincibility (or invulnerability)
e.g. “no one understands me, particularly my parents. They have no idea of what I am feeling”
might craft a story about the self that is filled with fantasy in a world that is far removed form reality
what does it mean when adolescents often show a sense of invincible
lead adolescents to believe that they are invulnerable to dangers and catastrophes that happen to other people .
engage in risky behaviors
e.g.
drag racing, drug use, unprotected sex
what does it mean when adolescents often show a sense of vulnerability
tend to portray themselves as vulnerable to experiencing a premature death
does Facebook increase self interest egocentrism, and does a greater use of social networking sites link to a higher level of narcissism
yes it increases self interest egocentrism
yes, higher level of narcissism
what is cognitive control
effective control of thinking in a number of
areas
* Learn to control attention and reduce interfering thoughts
* Be cognitively flexible
what did Deanna Kuhn discuss about information processing
some important characteristics of adolescents information processing and thinking
in her view;
later years of childhood and continuing adolescence, individuals approach cognitive levels that may or may not be achieved
Did Deanna Kuhn believe that all adolescents achieve a universal cognitive level
no, there is considerable variation in cognitive functioning that is present across individuals
that is, adolescents are […] likely than children to initiate changes in thinking rather than depend on others, such as parents and teachers to […] their thinking
more
direct
what does Deanna Kuhn argue that is the most important cognitive change in adolescence that imporves
executive fucntion
executive function is the umbrella-like concept that consists of a number of […]-level […] processes linked to the development of the prefrontal cortex
higher
cognitive
executive function involve managing one’s thoughts to engage in […]-directed behavior and to exercise […] control
goal
self
what does cognitive control involve effective control in
number of areas, including controlling attention, reducing interfering thoughts, and being cognitively flexible
- continues to increase in adolescence and emerging adulthood
what are examples of situations where cognitive control is needed
- making effort to stick with a task, avoiding interfering thoughts or environmental evens and instead doing what Is most effective
- stopping and thinking before acting to avoid blurting out something that a minute or two later they will wish they hadn’t said
- continuing to work on something that is important but boring when there is something a lot more fun to do, inhibiting their behavior and doing the boring but important task, saying to themselves, “I have to show the self discipline to finish this”
when do most people make better decisions, when they are calm or when they are emotionally aroused
calm
what context plays a key role in adolescent decision making
social
- likely to make risky decisions in contexts where substances and other temptations are readily available + peer presence + preference for immediate rewards
a strategy for improving adolescent decision making is to provide more opportunities for them to engage in […] playing and peer group […] solving
Role
Problem
how do seventh graders typically feel about school
- less satisfied than 6th, elementary, highshcool
- less committed to school
- liked their teachers less
regardless of academic success
the drop in teacher warmth associated with [higher or lower] student math scores
lower
when transitioning to middle or junior high school what changes are taking place
- puberty and concern about body image
- emergence of at least some aspects of formal operational thought (include changes in social cognition; increased responsibility and decreased dependency on parents; change to a larger, more impersonal school structure; change from one teacher to many teachers and from a small, homogeneous set of peers to larger, more heterogenous set; and an increased focus on achievement and performance. )
what is the top dog phenomenon that students experience when making the transition to middle or junior high school
moving from being the oldest, biggest, and most powerful students in the elementary school to being the youngest, smallest, and least powerful students
what is the positive aspect to the transition of the top dog phenomenon
- feel grown up
- more subjects from which to select
- more challenged intellectually by academic work
- more opportunities to spend time with peers and locate compatible friends
- enjoy increased independence form direct parental monitoring
what do educators and psychologists worry about junior high and middle schools have became
have become watered down versions of high schools, mimicking their curricular and extracurricular schedules
what do critics argue that junior high and middle schools offer
activities that reflect a wide range of individual differences in biological and psychological development among young adolescents
what did the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development issue of the US middle schools
an extremely negative evaluation of US middle schools
what did it conclude?
- attendee massive, impersonal schools; were taught from irrelevatn curricula; trusted few adults in school; lacked access to health care and counseling
what did the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development recommend of US middle schools
develop smaller “communities” or “houses” to lessen the impersonal nature of large middle schools, maintain lower student to counselor rations, involve parents and community leaders in schools, develop new curricula, have teachers team teach in more flexibly designed curriculum blocks that integrate several disciplines, boost students health and fitness with more in school programs, and help students who need public health care to get it
experts were still finding that middle schools throughout the nation would require a major […] to become effective in educating adolescents
redesign
what is the percentage of US high school graduates that have the academic skills to succeed in college
25 percent
why?
- poorly prepared for college and for the demands of the modern, high performance workplace
what are problems of transitioning to high school
- often larger
- more bureaucratic
- more impersonal than middle schools are
- isn’t much opportunity for students and teachers to get to know each other = lead to distrust
- infrequently make content relevant to studens’ interest
undermine the motivation to students
what did Robert Crosneo’s book “Fitting In, Standing Out” highlight as another major problem with US high schools
- how negative social aspects of adolescents lives undermine their academic achievement
- for many youth it is more about navigating the social worlds of peer relations that may or may not value education and academic achievement
according to Robert Crosneo what happened to adolescents in high school who failed to fit in, especially those who were obese or gay
become stigmatized
refers to;
treated with shame or disapproval by others because of a particular characteristic, behavior, or condition.
what does Robert Crosneo recommened to improve high schools
- increased school counseling services
- expanded extracurricular activities (latinos who participate improve academic achievement and school engagement)
- improved parental monitoring to reduce such problems
are high school adolescents a concern about US high schools
yes (latinos highest percentage)
males more likely to dropout (rates have been narrowing in gender differences)
are drop out rates of high school higher in which areas
low income areas
side note;
Dropping out: early intervention and mentoring helps
Fuzzy-trace theory dual process model; is a way of understanding how we think and make decisions. It suggests that we have two different systems for processing information:
- Verbatim (Analytical) System: This system focuses on precise details and facts. It’s like when you carefully analyze all the information available, looking at the specifics and following logical steps to make a decision.
- Gist-based (Intuitive) System: This system relies on the general idea or overall meaning rather than the exact details. It’s more about intuition or gut feelings, where you make decisions based on what seems right or feels true, without focusing on every little detail.
what are some reasons students drop out of school
- not liking school
- being expelled or suspended
- economic reasons (40% latinos)
- personal reasons, pregnancy or marriage (females)
what do effective programs do to discourage dropping out of high school
- provide early reading support,
- tutoring
- counseling
- mention
- engaging in positive ways
service learning is form of education that promotes […] responsibility and […] to the community
social
service
e.g. tutoring, helping older adults, working in a hospital
an important goal of service learning is to encourage adolescents to become [more or less] self centered and [more or less] strongly motivated to help others
Less
More
when is service learning more encouraging for adolescents
- giving students some degree of choice in the service activities in which they participate
- providing students with opportunities to reflect about their participation
benefits the adolescent but also the recipient of their help
what does service learning also benefit of adolescent development
- including higher grades in school ,
- increased goal setting
- higher self estee
- improved sense of being able to make a difference for tohers
- increased likelihood that the adolescents will serve as volutneers in the future
(girls more likely to participate than boys)
the overall US high school dropout rate decline considerably in the last half of the twentieth century, but the dropout rates for Native Americans and Latino adolescents remain
very high
“I Have a Dream” Foundation mentoring and programs nationwide
encourage success.
What matures first as the brain and its linkages develops
sensory, appetitive (eating, drinking), sexual, sensation seeking, risk taking brain linkages maturing first, higher level brain linkages such as self control, planning and reasoning mature later
