chapter 5; Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Flashcards
why is it good that the growth rate slows in early childhood
if continue to grow we would be giants
what is the pace of brain growth during early childhood
brain growth slows down
how much of adult volume does the brain reach by 6 years old
95%
what patterns does child growth in infancy follow
cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns
how much does the average child grow a year in inches during early childhood
2 1/2 inches
how much does the average child gain in pounds a year during early childhood
between 5 and 10 pounds
are girls only slightly smaller and lighter than boys during early childhood
yes, until puberty
what type of tissue do girls have more of than boys
girls have more fatty tissue than boys
what type of tissue do boys have more of than girls
boys have more muscle tissue than girls
during preschool years what body change do both boys and girls go through
slim down as the trunk of the body lengthens
what is something noticeable of most children during their preschool years
the head is still somewhat large for the body
by the end of the preschool years what do most children lose
the top-heavy look they had as toddlers
body fat during the preschool years and the end of early childhood shows a slow, steady […] during the preschool years. chubby baby often looks much […] by the end of early childhood.
decline
leaner
are growth patterns the same for everyone?
no, they vary from one individual to another
what is involved with the variation of growth patterns
heredity
environmental experiences
what are the two most important contributors to height differences
- ethnic origin
- nutrition
the continuing development of the […] and others parts of the […] system are the most important physical developments during early childhood
brain
nervous
the increasing maturation of the brain, combined with opportunities to experience a widening world, contribute to the children’s emerging […] abilities
Cognitive
what do changes in the brain during early childhood enable children to do ?
plan their actions, attend to stimuli more effectively, and make considerable strides in language development
does the brain grow as rapidly during early childhood as in infancy
no, the brain does not grow as rapidly during early childhood as in infancy, it undergoes remarkable changes
what types of growth do the children’s brains experince
rapid, distinct spurts of growth
what patterns change dramatically in the brain from ages 3 to 5
local patterns within the brain
what happens to brain material from ages 3 to 5
- amount of brain material in some areas can nearly double in as little as a year
- followed by a dramatic loss of tissue as unneeded cells are pruned and the brain continues to recognize itself
from ages 3 to 6 years where is the most rapid growth in the brain
frontal lobes aka the prefrontal cortex
what does the prefrontal cortex (frontal lobe) play a role in
planning and organizing new actions and maintaining attention to tasks
what before birth contributes to the brains growth during early childhood
- number and size of dendrites increase
- myelination occurs
what is myelination
process through which axons are covered with a layer of fat cells
what is an axon
nerve fibers that carry signals away from the cell body
what is the purpose of myelination
To increase the speed and efficiency of information traveling through the nervous system
when is myelination in the areas of the brain related to hand eye coordination complete
until about age 4
when is myelination in the areas of the brain related to focusing attention complete
until the end of middle or late childhood
when is myelination of many aspects of the prefrontal cortex completed especially those involving higher level thinking skills
until late adolescence or emerging adulthood
what do young children with higher cognitive abilities show
increased myelination by 3 years of age
what contextual factors are linked to the development of the brain
poverty and parenting quality
what did children from the poorest homes have
significant maturational lags in their frontal and temporal lobes at 4 years of age
- associated with lower school readiness skills
what was associated with higher total brain volume in early childhood
higher levels of maternal sensitivity
around age 3 what gross motor skills do children enjoy doing just for the sheer delight of performing them
- hopping
- jumping
- running back and forth
how many preschool children are experiencing malnutrition
11 million
at age 4 what gross motor skills do they enjoy doing
enjoying simple movements but become more adventurous
at age 5 what does having more gross motor skills Brin
more adventuresome than when they were 4
what are long term negative effects for children who fail to develop basic motor skills
- not be able to join in group games
- participate in sports during their school years + adulthood
what do children with a low level of motor competence have compared to their counterparts with a high level of motor competence
- lower motivation for sports participation
- lower global self-worth
what was higher motor proficiency in preschool linked to
engaging in a higher level of physical activity in adolescence
by the time they turn 3 what develops of the children
their fine motor skills
by age four what happens to a childs fine motor coordination
its improved substantially and is much more precise
by age five what happens to fine motor coordination
better command of the eye
what is affected by the child’s eating habits
- skeletal growth
- body shape
- susceptibility to disease
who influences young children’s eating behavior
by their caregivers behavior
how can a childs eating behavior improve with caregivers
- eat with children on a predictable schedule
- model eating healthy food
- make mealtimes pleasant occasions
- engage in certain feeding styles
what do experts recommend for a caregiver to give according to tending to children’s eating habits
a sensitive, responsive caregiver feeding style
caregiver is nurturant
why are forceful and restrictive caregiver behaviors not recommended
can lead to excessive weight gain
is being overweight becoming a serious health problem in early childhood?
yes
how much percentage of children’s meals exceed the recommendations for saturated and trans fat
45%
- raise cholesterol levels and increase the risk of heart disease
what is the vegetable 3 year olds were more likely to consume
French fries, and other friend potatoes
what does BMI categorize
obesity, overweight, and at risk for being overweight
what does BMI take into account
height and weight
what is the BMI percentile to be classified as obese
at or above the 97th percentile for children and adolescents
what is the BMI percentile to be classified as overweight
95th and 96th percentile
what is the BMI percentile to be classified as at risk of being overweight
85th to the 94th percentile
in a comparison of 34 countries what place did the United States have in rate of childhood obesity
the second highest rate
at what age are physicians seeing type 2 (adult-onset) diabetes in children
as young as age 5
what is diabetes directly linked to
obesity and a low level of fitness
what are the 5-2-1-0 obesity prevention guidelines for young children
- 5 or more servings of fruits & vegetables
- 2 hours or less of screen time
- minimum of 1 hour of physical activity
- 0 sugar sweetened beverages daily
what do the obesity prevention guidelines believe should be the basic idea of food regarding obesity
helping children, parents, and teachers see healthy food as a way to satisfy hunger and meet nutritional needs, not as proof of love or as a reward for good behavior
what should be a daily occurrence
routine physical activity
what was associated with increasing of body mass index (BMI) between kindergarten and first grade
viewing as little as one hour of television daily
what do children from low-income families with poor nutrition not obtain
essential amounts of
- iron
- vitamins
- protein
what does WIC stand for
Women, Infants, and Children
what does WIC (women, infants, and children) provide
- federal grants to states for healthy supplemental foods
- heath-care referrals
- nutrition education for women from low-income families beginning in pregnancy,
and to infants and young children up to 5 years of age who are at nutritional risk
how many participants of WIC are served in the US
7,500,000
what did longitudinal studies show when mothers when mothers participated in WIC programs parentally and during their children’s first five years
- showed short term cognitive benefits
- longer-term reading
- math benefits
what should the childs life center on
activities, not meals
what is the leading cause of death in young children
- accidents
followed by - cancer
- cardiovascular disease
what are some accidental deaths in children
- drowning
- falls
- poisoning
what is children’s safety influenced by
- own skills
- safety-related behaviors
characteristics of their - family
- home
- school
- peers
- community
what is one major danger to children
parental smoking
what does parental smoking lead
likely to develop
- wheezing
- asthma
what does exposure to secondhand smoke relate to
- young children’s sleep problems
- sleep-disordered breathing
what did maternal cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption when children were 5 years of age link to
early onset of smoking in adolescence
what do young children who are exposed to environmental tobacco smoke engage in
antisocial behavior when they were 12 years old
in other countries how do many of the children die
of preventable infectious diseases
how could many of the deaths in young children around the world be prevented
- reduction in poverty
improvement in - nutrition
- sanitation
- education
- health services
leading causes of death in the u.s. children are
- accidents
- congenital malformations
- deformities
- chromosomal abnormalities
- children’s safety
what devastating effects do high poverty rate have on the health of a country’s young children
- experience hunger
- malnutrition
- illness
- inadequate access to healthcare
- unsafe water
- lack of protection from harm
there been an increase of in number of young children who have died of […]/[…] that were transmitted to them by parents
HIV/AIDS
where do HIV/AIDS especially occur in
- countries with high rates of poverty
- low levels of education
what are individual characteristics that enhance young children’s safety
- development of social skills and ability to regulate emotions
- impulse control
- frequent use of personal protection
what are family/home characteristics that enhance young children’s safety
- high awareness and knowledge of child management and parenting skills
- frequent parent protective behaviors
- presence of home safety equipment
what are school/peer characteristics that enhance young children’s safety
- promotion of home/school partnerships
- absence of playground hazards
- injury prevention and safety promotion policies and programs
what are community characteristics that enhance young children’s safety
- availability of positive activities for children and their parents
- active surveillance of environmental hazards
- effective prevention policies in place
what is the cognitive world of the preschool child
- creative
- free
- fanciful
what three theories of cognitive development in early childhood that is focused on
- Piaget’s
- Vygotsky’s
- information processing
what is Piagets first stage
sensorimotor stage
what is the sensorimotor stage for infants
becomes increasingly able to organize and coordinate sensations and perceptions with physical movements and actions
the pre-operational stage lasts from approximately […] to […] years of age. They begin to represent the world with […], […], […], for, stable […], and being to […]
2
7
words
images
drawings
concepts
reason
(same time dominated with egocentrism and magical beliefs)
what does pre-operational emphasize in a child from Piagets theory
that the child does not yet perform operations;
(which are reversible mental actions that allow children to do mentally what before they could do only physically)
what is an example of pre operational in Piagets pre operational stage
operations such as mentally adding and subtracting numbers
what is pre operational thought
the beginning of the ability to reconstruct in thought what has been established in behavior
what substages can the pre operation stage from Piagets theory be divided into
- symbolic function
- intuitive thought
Roughly between ages […] and […] symbolic function substage (first substage of pre operational thought) is when you gain the ability to mentally represent an object that is not […]
2
4
present
what does the child do during the symbolic function substage (pre operational thought)
- use scribble designs to represent anything
- begin to use language more effectively
- engage in pretend play
what are the two limitations that children have during the pre operational thought symbolic substage
egocentrism
animism
what is egocentrism
inability to distinguish between ones own perspective and someone else’s perspective
what is animism
another limitation of pre operational thought, is the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of actions
the intuitive thought substage is a substage of pre operational thought between the ages of […] and […]. They begin to use primitive […] and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions
4
7
reasoning
what do a child’s questions in the intuitive thought substage of the pre-operational stage of Piagets theory signal
- emergence of interest in reasoning
- figuring out why things are the way they are
why is the intuitive thought substage called intuitive in Piagets pre-operation cognitive theory
because young children seem so sure about their knowledge and understanding, yet are unaware of how they know what they know
what is centration regarding limiting preoperational thought
a centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others
what does conservation mean as a limitation of preoperational thought in Piagets theory
lack the awareness that altering an object or substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties
what do pre operational children fail to conserve
- volume
- number
- matter
- length
- area
(vary in performance on different conservation tasks)
what does Rochel German believe in contrast to Piaget
conservation appears earlier than Piaget thought and that attention is especially important in explaining conservation
did Piaget get full support for his theory of when children’s conservation skills emerge
no, some developmental psychologists do not believe Piaget was entirely correct
what is Vygotskys theory constructivist approach
social constructivist approach to development
what does Vygotskys social constructivist approach emphasize
children think and understand primarily through social interaction
in Vygotskys view what does a children’s cognitive development depend on
- tools provided by society
- minds are shaped by the cultural context in which they live
what is zone of proximal development (ZPD) in Vygotskys cognitive development theory
term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but can be learned with the guidance and assistance of adults or more-skilled children
what is the lower limit of the ZPD in Vygotskys theory
level of skill/level of problem reached by the child working independently
what is the upper limit of the ZPD in Vygotsksys cognitive theory
level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor
what does vygotsky refer to of the lower and upper limit of development
“buds” or “flowers” of development to distinguish them from the “fruits” (child can already accomplish independently)
what factors can influence the effectiveness of the ZPD in children’s learning and development
- better emotional regulation
- secure attachment
- absence of maternal depression
- child compliance
what does scaffolding mean
changing the level of support
linked to the idea of ZPD
according to vygotsky what do children use speech for
- social communication
- help them solve tasks
what is the process of private speech to
- plan
- guide
- monitor their behavior
what is the use for private speech
self regulation
what did Piaget view private speech as
egocentric and immature
- important tool of thought during the early childhood years
how did vygotsky believe that language and thought initially develop
independently of each other and then merge
what did vygotsky emphasize of all mental functions
have
- external
- social
- origins
how did vygotskys believe that language and thought merged
e.g. children must use language to communicate with others before they can focus inward on their own thoughts
between ages 3 and 7
what is inner speech according to vygotsky
talking to oneself
becomes second nature
act without verbalizing
internalize their egocentric speech
becomes their thoughts
what did vygotsky argue of private speech
represents an early transition toward becoming more socially communicative
what are some ways in which educators can apply vygotskys theory
- asses the child’s AZD
- use the childs zone of proximal development in teaching
- use more skilled peers as teachers
- monitor and encourage childrens use of private speech
- place instruction in a meaningful context
what is Tools of the Mind
early childhood education curriculum that emphasizes children’s development of self regulation and the cognitive foundations of literacy
what is a comparison for vygotsky and Piagets cognitive theories of inner speech
vygotsky emphasizes on the importance of inner speech in cognitive development
Piagets view that such speech is immature
what is the difference in implications for teaching in Piaget and Vygotskys cognitive theorys
- Piaget ; children need support to explore their world and discover knowledge
- Vygotsky ; students need many opportunities to learn with a teacher and more skilled peers
what do Piaget and vygotskys theories have in common
teachers serve as facilitators and guides rather than as directors and molders
what have critics of vygotskys theory said about his theory
- not specific enough about age-related changes
- overemphasized the role of language in thinking
- does not describe how changes in socio-emotional capabilities contribute to cognitive development
are both vygotsky and Piagets theories evaluated thoroughly
even though their theories were proposed at about the same time, most of the world learned about vygotskys theory later on
what is the comparison with vygotsky and Piagets emphasises on sociocultural context
- vygotsky; strong emphasis
- Piaget; little emphasis
what is the comparison on constructivism to vygotsky and Piagets
- vygotsky; social constructivist
- Piaget ; cognitive constructivist
what is the comparison on stages according to vygotsky and Piagets theories
- vygotsky; no general stages of development proposed
- Piaget; strong emphasis on stages (sensorimotor, pre operational, concrete operational, and formal operational)
what is the comparison on key processes between vygotsky and Piagets theories
- vygotsky; zone of proximal development, language, dialogue, tools of the culture
- Piaget; schema, assimiliation, accommodation, operations, conservation, classification
what is the comparison on role of language between vygotsky and Piagets theories
- vygotsky; a major role; language plays a powerful role in shaping thought
- Piaget; language has a minimal role; cognition primarily directs language
what is the comparison on view of education between vygotsky and Piagets theories
- vygotsky; education plays a central role, helping children learn the tools of the culture
- Piaget; education merely refines the child’s cognitive skills that have already emerged
what is the comparison on teaching implications between vygotsky and Piagets theories
- vygotsky; teacher is a facilitator and guide, not a director; establish many opportunities for children to learn with the teacher and more-skilled peers
- Piagets; also views teacher as a facilitator and guide, not a director; provide support for children to explore their world and discover knowledge
attention is focusing mental […] on […] information
resources
information
does the childs ability to pay attention improve during the preschool years
improves significantly
what is executive attention
- involves planning actions,
- allocating attention to goals,
- detecting and compensating for errors,
-monitoring progress on tasks, - dealing with novel or difficult circumstances
what is sustained attention, also referred to as vigilance
focused and extended engagement with an object, task, event, or other aspect of the environment
during what periods does research indicate an increase in vigilance
although older children and adolescents increase in vigilance, it is during the preschool years that individuals show the greatest increase in vigilance
in what ways is the preschool child’s control of attention still deficient
- salient versus relevant dimensions
- planfulness
what does salient versus relevant dimensions refer to regarding attention being deficient
preschool children are likely to pay attention to stimuli that stand out, or are salient, even when those stimuli are not relevant to solving a problem or performing a task
what does the salient versus relevant dimensions shift to
change reflects a shift to cognitive control of attention, so that children act less impulsively and reflect more
what is planfulness regarding attention still being deficient
when experimenters ask children to judge whether two complex pictures are the same, preschool children tend to use a haphazard comparison strategy, not examining all the details before making a judgement
in Central European countries such as Hungary what do they do to improve attention
kindergarten children participate in exercises designed to improve their attention
what is the ability of preschool children to control and sustain their attention related to
school readiness
what is memory
the retention of information over time
- is a central process in children’s cognitive development
what are most of an infants considered to be
fragile, for the most part short-lived
the memory of perceptual motor actions in infants is considered to be
substantial
what is short-term memory
individuals retain information for up to 30 seconds if there is no rehearsal of the information
what does rehearsal do regarding short-term memory
can keep information in short-term memory for a much longer period
what does rehearsal mean regarding short-term memory
repeating information after it has been presented
is memory span the same from one another
no it varies from one individual to another
what is important with memory span
efficiency of processing and speed + speed with which memory items can be identified
what was linked to young children’s processing speed
myelination in a number of brain areas
what happens as a toddler’s short-term memory span increases during the early childhood years
their memory becomes more accurate
what are exceptions to factors influencing the accuracy of a young childs memory
- age differences in children’s susceptibility to suggestion
- there are individual differences in susceptibility
- interviewing techniques can produce substantial distortions in children’s reports about highly salient events
what does the accuracy of young childs eyewitness testimony depend on
- type
- number
- intensity of the suggestive techniques
what is autobiographical memory
involves memory of significant events and experiences in ones life
is autobiographical memory short or long term memory
long term memory
how many descriptive items per event does a child have at 3 1/2 years go age and 6 years
3 1/2 years old - 4 descriptive items
6 years old - 12 items
what is executive function
an umbrella-like concept that encompasses a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brains prefrontal cortex
what does executive function involve
managing ones thoughts to engage in goal- directed and exercise self-control
under what umbrella does executive attention fall under
umbrella of executive function
in early childhood what developmental advances does executive function involve
cognitive inhibition
cognitive flexibility
goal-setting
delay of gratification
what is an e.g. of cognitive inhibition
such as inhibiting a strong tendency that is incorrect
cognitive flexibility can be shifting attention to another item or topic
yes
what is an e.g. goal-setting
such as sharing a toy or mastering a skill like catching a ball
what is an e.g. of delay of gratification
the ability to forego an immediate pleasure or reward for a more desirable on later
what have researchers found that advances executive function during the preschool years
- math skills
- language development
- school readiness
what was linked with longer delay of gratification at 4 years of age
lower body mass index (BMI) three decades later
can young children who show delayed development of executive function
be linked with having a lower level of school readiness
yes
can having proper executive function and their parents, encourage homeless children’s success in school
yes
what is linked to a higher level of executive function at 5 to 6 years of age
secure attachment to mothers during the toddler years
what does theory of mind mean
a term that refers to awareness of one’s own mental processes and those of others
at what ages do main changes occur at for a childs theory of mind
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- +5
from ages 2 to 3 what major change occurs according to the childs theory of mind
- perceptions
- emotions
- desires
how do children begin to understand perception mean from ages 2 to 3 according to the childs theory of mind
the child realizes that other people see what is in front of their eyes and not necessarily what is in form of the childs eyes
What can children begin to understand of emotions from ages 2 to 3 according to the childs theory of mind
the child can distinguish between positive and negative emotions
how do children begin to understand desires according to childs theory of mind
the child understands that if someone wants something, he or she will try to get it
what do children refer to earlier and more frequently, desires or cognitive states according to the childs theory of mind
to desires
what ages 4 to 5 what do children come to understand according to the childs theory of mind
the mind can represent objects and events accurately or inaccurately
- false beliefs- beliefs that are not true- develops in a majority of children by the time they are 5 years old
can children younger than age 4 have false belief according to the childs theory of mind
no they do not understand
what is understood beyond age 5 according to the childs theory of mind
it is only beyond the preschool years that children have a deepening appreciation of the mind itself rather than just an understanding of the mental states
until when do children see the mind as an active constructor of knowledge or a processing center
not until middle and late childhood
(it is only then that they move form understanding that beliefs can be false to realizing that the same event can be open to multiple interpretations)
what is individual differences
there are individual differences in the ages when children reach certain milestones
what do children who talk about their feelings frequently as do children who frequently engage in pretend play show
- as 2 year olds show better performance on theory of mind tasks
what have researchers found in differences in children’s language skills to predict
performance on theory of mind tasks
what are some factors that influence children’s theory of mind development
- advances in prefrontal cortex functioning
- engaging in make believe play
- various aspects of social interaction
- securely attached to parents who engage children in mental state talk
- having older siblings and friends who engage in mental state talk
- living in a higher-socioeconomic-status family
what did parental engagement in mind mindedness do to preschool children’s theory of mind
advance it
what does having an advanced theory of mind do to children
are more popular with their peers and have better social skills in peer relations
what have researcher found with children that have autism
have difficulty developing a theory of mind
especially in understanding others’ beliefs and emotions
is the theory of mind correlated with autism
it can predict the severity of autism in child
(not surprising that autistic children have difficulty in interactions with others)
between ages 2 and 3, how does a toddlers language development transition
from saying simple sentences to saying complex sentences
what does phonology refer to
the sound system of a language, including the sounds used and how they may be combined
what does a child have during their preschool years according to having to understand phonology and morphology
- gradually become more sensitive to the sounds of spoken words
- increasingly capable of producing all the sounds of their language
by a childs birthday what can they do according to understanding phonology and morphology
produce all the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds
morphology refer to the units of […] involved in word formation
meaning
what is syntax
involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences
what is semantics
refers to the meaning of words and sentences
between 18 months and 6 years how much does a young child learn a new word
average of about one new word every waking hour
(estimated children know 14,000 words by the time they enter first grade)
what is fast mapping
involves children’s ability to make an initial connection between a word and its referent after only limited exposure to the word
what benefit does fast mapping ahve
brings a deeper understanding of word meaning, such as where the word can apply and its nuances
does having exposure as a child on multiple occasions over several days result in more successful word leaning than the same number of exposures in a single day
yes on multiple occasion over several days is better
what are six key principle in young children’s vocabulary development
- children learn the words they hear most often
- children learn words for things and events that interest them
- children learn words best in responsive and interactive contexts rather than passive contexts
- children learn words best in contexts that are meaningful
- children learn words best when they access clear information about word meaning
- children learn words best when grammar and vocabulary are considered
what does pragmatics mean
the appropriate use of language in different contexts, also characterize young children’s language development
a child around ages 4 or 5 learns to change their […] style to suit the situation
speech
what do parents and teachers need to provide young children with for the development of literacy skills
a supportive environment
what are some strategies for using books effectively with preschool children
- use books to initiate conversation with young children
- use what and why questions
- encourage children to ask questions about stories
- choose some books that play with language
what is child-centered kindergarten
emphasizes educating the whole child and promoting his or her physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development
what are the three honored principles of the child-centered kindergarten
- each child follows a unique developmental pattern
- young children learn best through firsthand experiences with people and materials
- play is extremely important in the childs total development
what is the Montessori approach by Maria Montessori
philosophy of education in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing acitivites
what do some believe the Montessori approach neglects
children’s socioemotional development
what is a critic of the Montessori approach
- restricts imaginative play
- heavy reliance on self corrective materials
- may not adequately allow for creativity and for a variety of learning styles
what does the Montessori approach foster and deemphasizes
- fosters independence + development of cognitive skills
- deemphasizes verbal interaction between the teacher and child and between peers
what is developmentally appropriate practice (DAP)
- typical development of children within a particular age span
- uniqueness of the individual child
what does DAP (developmentally appropriate practice) emphasize
the process of learning rather than on its content
what is the Project Head Start program
compensatory program designed to give children from low income families the opportunity to acquire skills and experiences that are important for success in school
is the Project Head start supported
continues to be the largest federally funded program for U.S. children
what was revealed of the Project Head Start program
a few lasting outcomes that stayed
what is the Perry Preschool program
high-quality early childhood education program includes weekly home visits from program personnel
what are controversies in early childhood education
- what the curriculum for early childhood education should be
- whether preschool education should be universal in the united states
what is the critic about whether preschool education should be universal in the united states
want to improve preschool education for young children who are disadvantaged than to fund preschool education for all 4 year old children
what are young children in the United States being raised on regarding nutrition
diets that are too high in fat
what is the biggest problem in malnutrition in young children from low income families
iron deficiency anemia
The period of early childhood is from the end of […] to about ages […] or […]
Infancy
5
6
