Chapter 5

Question 1

What is the total time hypothesis and was it well supported?

Answer 1

The idea that how well we learn depend on how long we engage with the material
- Not scientifically true though

Question 2

Massed practice

Answer 2

Studying repeatedly with little or no time passing between study sessions

Question 3

Distributed practice

Answer 3

Studying repeatedly with time intervals between study sessions

Question 4

Spaced learning is consistently ____ than massed learning in multiple lab studies (Cepeda et al., 2006) and it is also ____ in real studies of workspace learning (Kim et al., 2019)

Answer 4

higher; better

Question 5

For ____ practice, sessions are most effective when they are ____-____% length of retention interval, which makes ____ practice interact with ____ ____ since it is most effective when retrieval is difficult (occurs at longer lags)

Answer 5

distributed; 10-20; distributed; testing effect

Question 6

Benefits of distributed practice

Answer 6

• Faster improvement
• More lasting retention

Question 7

Cons of distributed practice

Answer 7

Takes longer in absolute terms (i.e. less actual training, and the delays add up), but it is not always practical or convenient
- Feels as being less efficient

Question 8

3 aspects that makes distributed practice/spacing a helpful strategy

Answer 8

• Deficient processing
• Encoding variability
• Reminding

Question 9

Deficient processing hypothesis

Answer 9

People pay less attention to recently encountered things and thus do not process them as well as something seen longer ago.

Question 10

Pros and Cons of deficient processing

Answer 10

Pro: Lots of empirical research to support it
Con: Research that attempts to directly manipulate attention to massed items has not supported this hypothesis

Question 11

Encoding variability

Answer 11

Encoding the same item in more different environments is more successful

Question 12

Pros and Cons of encoding variability

Answer 12

Pro: mathemathical model can make specific predictions
Cons: Not strongly supported by empirical tests; conflicts with other memory findings (e.g. transfer-appropriate/context-dependent findings)

Question 13

Reminding

Answer 13

Retrieving items is beneficial for memory
- Larger gap between items creates more effort at retrieval, so the benefit is greater.

Question 14

Pros and cons of reminding

Answer 14

Pro: Mathematical models fit existing data
Con: Newer, so more research is needed

Question 15

____ tests are the tests that has instructions to ____ and takes some effort to ____ the information. (ex. free recall, cued recall, recognition)

Answer 15

Explicit; remember; retrieve

Question 16

____ tests measures effect of ____ ____ on present and there are no instructions to remember.

Answer 16

Implicit; past experiences

Question 17

____ learning is evident in changes in behavior, rather than ____ remembering informationbehavior

Answer 17

Implicit; explicitly

Question 18

Lexical Decision

Answer 18

Response time to decide if the stimulus is a word or a non-word, after being or not being primed

Question 19

Lexical decision is associated with ____ memory tests.

Answer 19

Indirect

Question 20

In the Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982) study on explicit vs. implicit dissociations, participants were asked to study 96 words. An hour later, half of the items are tested either by ____ (direct) or ____ ____ (indirect). A week later, the remaining half of the items are tested using the opposite test.

Answer 20

recognition; fragment completion

Question 21

In the Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982) study on explicit vs. implicit dissociations, ____ yielded a higher response rate, but ____ after a week, while the response rate for ____ ____ remained the same.

Answer 21

recognition; dropped; fragment completion

Question 22

The study by Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982) suggests that there is ____ between ____ and ____ processes which makes them different ____ ____

Answer 22

dissociation; explicit; implicit; memory systems

Question 23

Double dissociations

Answer 23

Variable has opposite effects on direct & indirect tests

Question 24

In the Roediger & Weldon (1987) study, participants were asked to study items either as ____ or ____, and tested either with ____ recall or with ____-____ completion.

Answer 24

pictures; words; free; word-fragment
- Picture superiority & picture inferiority effects

Question 25

According to the Roediger & Weldon (1987) study, participants who studied ____ had a slightly ____ proportion of items recalled in ____ ____.

However, when participants were primed with ____ fragment, individuals who studied ____ had a drastically ____ fragment completion rate than those who studied ____.

Answer 25

pictures; higher; free recall

word; pictures; lower; words

Question 26

What was the concluion of the study by Roediger & Weldon?

Answer 26

The results suggest that implicit and explicit memory are different systems since there is dissociations between direct & indirect tests

Question 27

Nonsense syllables

Answer 27

Word-like consonant-vowel-consonant sequences which could be pronounced but had no meaning

Question 28

Deliberate practice (Ericsson)

Answer 28

The engagement (with full concentration) in a training activity designed to improve a particular aspect of performance with immediate feedback, opportunities for graduate refinement with repetition and provlem solving.

Question 29

Testing effect

Answer 29

The finding that long-term memory is enhanced when much of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information

Question 30

Test-enhanced learning

Answer 30

The tendency for a period of study to promote much greater learning when that study follows a retrieval test of the studied material

Question 31

Consolidation

Answer 31

The time-dependent process by which a new trace is gradually woven into the fabric of memory and by which its components and their interconnections are cemented together.

Question 32

The Consolidation of Memory is a process whereby the ____ becomes more firmly established, and is commonly now divided into two processes: ____ consolidation and ___ consolidation.

Answer 32

memory; synaptic; systems

Question 33

Synaptic consolidation

Answer 33

A process that is assumed to involve the hippocampus and operate over a 24-hour timescale

Question 34

Systems consolidation

Answer 34

A process assumed to operate over a much longer period, and to involve the transfer of information from the hippocampus to other parts of the neocortex

Question 35

Examples of implicit memory tests include word-____ completion and word-____ completion

Answer 35

stem; fragment

Question 36

The encoding variability hypothesis states that…

Answer 36

An item will be better remembered if a person encode it in a variety of different ways and have different thoughts about it so that a richer array of associations for the item can be created for accessing the memory.

Question 37

By the encoding variability hypothesis, both ____ and ____ ____ produce better memory because…

Answer 37

spacing; longer lags; you are more likely to encode the repetition in new ways that enrich your memory trace.

Question 38

Spacing effect (also the Distributed Practice effect)

Answer 38

Improved learning that arises from separating repeated study attempts compared to massing repetitions

Question 39

Expanding retrieval practice

Answer 39

The idea that gradually increasing the spacing interval between repeated tests ought to promote optimal long-term retention

Question 40

Reminding hypothesis

Answer 40

Perceiving a current event can trigger involuntary recollection of past events, and the cognitive operation of reminding can be encoded as part of a configural representation that also includes the constituent events of the reminding
(Dummy version of the 2nd sentence: Our brain then combined the memory of the old event, the new event, and the act of remembering itself into one mental picture or pattern, so they’re all connected together.)

Question 41

Which of the following statements is true about the relationship between spacing (the amount of time between two repetitions of to-be-learned material) and memory for that material?

Answer 41

More spacing is better, but only to a point (upper bound do exist)

Question 42

Johnson and Uhl (1976) predicted that ____ attention to words would make it ____ to react to a quiet sound. Words were either ____ or ____, and measured response time for both groups.

Answer 42

less; easier; massed; spaced

Question 43

What did Johnson and Uhl (1976) find in their study, and what does the results suggest?

Answer 43

The reaction time of both groups started out the same, but as repetition increases, there is a slower response time in distributed learning group to the quiet sound.
This results supports deficient processing hypothesis

Question 44

Roediger & Karpicke (2006) had participants study material under different conditions and gave them ____ tests after 5 minutes or a week later. What did they find?

Answer 44

recall

Results:
After 5 minutes: SSSS>SSST>STTT
After a week: STTT>SSST>SSSS

Suggest: Testing effect: testing the material is better for long-term retention than restudying.

Question 45

What was the conclusion of the study by Underwood (1970)?

Answer 45

Spacing is better than massed practice for all frequeciees of words, as well as the size of spacing effect increases as repetition increase

Question 46

The meta-analysis study by Latimier, Peyre, and Ramus (2021) found that studies with ____ or fewer exposures to each item showed ____ benefit, while studies with more than ____ exposures showed an effect of ____ ____.

Answer 46

4; no; 4; expanding retrieval

Question 47

What was the conclusion of the Latimier, Peyre, and Ramus (2021) study?

Answer 47

Expanding retrieval practice does help, but it helps more when the items are seen more frequently

Question 48

In the study by Finley et al. (2011), the ____ cue condition (removed cues for retrieval) yielded higher amount of words remembered, followed by ____ (same amount of cues) and ____ (cues to word retrieval were added.)

Answer 48

Diminishing; Restudy; Accumulating

Question 49

What does the study by Finley et al. (2011) suggest?

Answer 49

Slowly increasing the difficulty of retrieval can improve learning, which is similar to thedistributed practice effect