Chapter 5 Flashcards
What is the total time hypothesis and was it well supported?
The idea that how well we learn depend on how long we engage with the material
- Not scientifically true though
Massed practice
Studying repeatedly with little or no time passing between study sessions
Distributed practice
Studying repeatedly with time intervals between study sessions
Spaced learning is consistently ____ than massed learning in multiple lab studies (Cepeda et al., 2006) and it is also ____ in real studies of workspace learning (Kim et al., 2019)
higher; better
For ____ practice, sessions are most effective when they are ____-____% length of retention interval, which makes ____ practice interact with ____ ____ since it is most effective when retrieval is difficult (occurs at longer lags)
distributed; 10-20; distributed; testing effect
Benefits of distributed practice
- Faster improvement
- More lasting retention
Cons of distributed practice
Takes longer in absolute terms (i.e. less actual training, and the delays add up), but it is not always practical or convenient
- Feels as being less efficient
3 aspects that makes distributed practice/spacing a helpful strategy
- Deficient processing
- Encoding variability
- Reminding
Deficient processing hypothesis
People pay less attention to recently encountered things and thus do not process them as well as something seen longer ago.
Pros and Cons of deficient processing
Pro: Lots of empirical research to support it
Con: Research that attempts to directly manipulate attention to massed items has not supported this hypothesis
Encoding variability
Encoding the same item in more different environments is more successful
Pros and Cons of encoding variability
Pro: mathemathical model can make specific predictions
Cons: Not strongly supported by empirical tests; conflicts with other memory findings (e.g. transfer-appropriate/context-dependent findings)
Reminding
Retrieving items is beneficial for memory
- Larger gap between items creates more effort at retrieval, so the benefit is greater.
Pros and cons of reminding
Pro: Mathematical models fit existing data
Con: Newer, so more research is needed
____ tests are the tests that has instructions to ____ and takes some effort to ____ the information. (ex. free recall, cued recall, recognition)
Explicit; remember; retrieve
____ tests measures effect of ____ ____ on present and there are no instructions to remember.
Implicit; past experiences
____ learning is evident in changes in behavior, rather than ____ remembering informationbehavior
Implicit; explicitly
Lexical Decision
Response time to decide if the stimulus is a word or a non-word, after being or not being primed
Lexical decision is associated with ____ memory tests.
Indirect
In the Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982) study on explicit vs. implicit dissociations, participants were asked to study 96 words. An hour later, half of the items are tested either by ____ (direct) or ____ ____ (indirect). A week later, the remaining half of the items are tested using the opposite test.
recognition; fragment completion
In the Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982) study on explicit vs. implicit dissociations, ____ yielded a higher response rate, but ____ after a week, while the response rate for ____ ____ remained the same.
recognition; dropped; fragment completion
The study by Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982) suggests that there is ____ between ____ and ____ processes which makes them different ____ ____
dissociation; explicit; implicit; memory systems
Double dissociations
Variable has opposite effects on direct & indirect tests
In the Roediger & Weldon (1987) study, participants were asked to study items either as ____ or ____, and tested either with ____ recall or with ____-____ completion.
pictures; words; free; word-fragment
- Picture superiority & picture inferiority effects
According to the Roediger & Weldon (1987) study, participants who studied ____ had a slightly ____ proportion of items recalled in ____ ____.
However, when participants were primed with ____ fragment, individuals who studied ____ had a drastically ____ fragment completion rate than those who studied ____.
pictures; higher; free recall
word; pictures; lower; words
What was the concluion of the study by Roediger & Weldon?
The results suggest that implicit and explicit memory are different systems since there is dissociations between direct & indirect tests
Nonsense syllables
Word-like consonant-vowel-consonant sequences which could be pronounced but had no meaning
Deliberate practice (Ericsson)
The engagement (with full concentration) in a training activity designed to improve a particular aspect of performance with immediate feedback, opportunities for graduate refinement with repetition and provlem solving.
Testing effect
The finding that long-term memory is enhanced when much of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information
Test-enhanced learning
The tendency for a period of study to promote much greater learning when that study follows a retrieval test of the studied material
Consolidation
The time-dependent process by which a new trace is gradually woven into the fabric of memory and by which its components and their interconnections are cemented together.
The Consolidation of Memory is a process whereby the ____ becomes more firmly established, and is commonly now divided into two processes: ____ consolidation and ___ consolidation.
memory; synaptic; systems
Synaptic consolidation
A process that is assumed to involve the hippocampus and operate over a 24-hour timescale
Systems consolidation
A process assumed to operate over a much longer period, and to involve the transfer of information from the hippocampus to other parts of the neocortex
Examples of implicit memory tests include word-____ completion and word-____ completion
stem; fragment
The encoding variability hypothesis states that…
An item will be better remembered if a person encode it in a variety of different ways and have different thoughts about it so that a richer array of associations for the item can be created for accessing the memory.
By the encoding variability hypothesis, both ____ and ____ ____ produce better memory because…
spacing; longer lags; you are more likely to encode the repetition in new ways that enrich your memory trace.
Spacing effect (also the Distributed Practice effect)
Improved learning that arises from separating repeated study attempts compared to massing repetitions
Expanding retrieval practice
The idea that gradually increasing the spacing interval between repeated tests ought to promote optimal long-term retention
Reminding hypothesis
Perceiving a current event can trigger involuntary recollection of past events, and the cognitive operation of reminding can be encoded as part of a configural representation that also includes the constituent events of the reminding
(Dummy version of the 2nd sentence: Our brain then combined the memory of the old event, the new event, and the act of remembering itself into one mental picture or pattern, so they’re all connected together.)
Which of the following statements is true about the relationship between spacing (the amount of time between two repetitions of to-be-learned material) and memory for that material?
More spacing is better, but only to a point (upper bound do exist)
Johnson and Uhl (1976) predicted that ____ attention to words would make it ____ to react to a quiet sound. Words were either ____ or ____, and measured response time for both groups.
less; easier; massed; spaced
What did Johnson and Uhl (1976) find in their study, and what does the results suggest?
The reaction time of both groups started out the same, but as repetition increases, there is a slower response time in distributed learning group to the quiet sound.
This results supports deficient processing hypothesis
Roediger & Karpicke (2006) had participants study material under different conditions and gave them ____ tests after 5 minutes or a week later. What did they find?
recall
Results:
After 5 minutes: SSSS>SSST>STTT
After a week: STTT>SSST>SSSS
Suggest: Testing effect: testing the material is better for long-term retention than restudying.
What was the conclusion of the study by Underwood (1970)?
Spacing is better than massed practice for all frequeciees of words, as well as the size of spacing effect increases as repetition increase
The meta-analysis study by Latimier, Peyre, and Ramus (2021) found that studies with ____ or fewer exposures to each item showed ____ benefit, while studies with more than ____ exposures showed an effect of ____ ____.
4; no; 4; expanding retrieval
What was the conclusion of the Latimier, Peyre, and Ramus (2021) study?
Expanding retrieval practice does help, but it helps more when the items are seen more frequently
In the study by Finley et al. (2011), the ____ cue condition (removed cues for retrieval) yielded higher amount of words remembered, followed by ____ (same amount of cues) and ____ (cues to word retrieval were added.)
Diminishing; Restudy; Accumulating
What does the study by Finley et al. (2011) suggest?
Slowly increasing the difficulty of retrieval can improve learning, which is similar to thedistributed practice effect
