Chapter 4: Research Methods Flashcards
2 forms of validity that research studies have
1) internal: extent to which we can be confident that the independent variable is changing the dep. variable
2) external: generalizability
hypothesis are ____ educated guesses
testable.
testability: abilities to confirm or refute a hypothesis. Dep and indep. variables must be specified in a hypothesis. Indep. variables often gets manipulated by the researcher.
a variable that is not the indep. variable that may be affecting the dep. variable is called a _____ ___
confounding facotr
confounds affect ___ validity
internal
3 ways to prevent confounds and ensure internal validity
1) control groups
2) randomization
3) analogue models
what are analogue models
creating aspects in the control group that are comparable to the phenomenon under study. ex/ making volunteers binge eat in the lab, and then assessing how guilty they feel (trying to study bulimia, even if this is in the control group)
best solution to balance internal and external validity
conduct several related but different studies.
effect size
size of differences seen in groups. statistic used to determine true clinical significance
clinical vs statistical stig
statistical sig: mathematical calculation about the difference in groups
clinical sig: whether or not the difference was meaningful for those affected.
social validity
obtaining input from the person being treated and from significant others about the important of the changes that have occurred
- if the effect of the treatment is large enough to impress those who are directly involved, the treatment effect is clinically significant.
patient uniformity myth
the tendency to see all pts as one homogenous group.
why is the pt uniformity myth harmful
Comparing groups according to their mean scores hides differences in individual reactions to our interventions. may result in inaccurate generalizations about disorders and their treatment.
T/F Case study method uses scientific method
false. it investigates an individual who displays behavioural/physical patterns. not a group. it only relies on clinician observations and interviews (decreased in ternal validity)
T/F correlation is experimental
false. does not involve the manipulation of variables. correlation does not equal causation.
epidemiology
study of incidence, distribution, and consequences of a problem in a population.
T/F epidemiological studies can result in causation
false. does not link causation. still a type of correlational research
is an epidemiological study a correlational or experimental study
a correlational type of study.
epidemiological studies determine clues as to why a disorder exists by tracking the ___ (onset of disorder) and ____ (number of people with the disorder)
epidemiological studies determine clues as to why a disorder exists by tracking the INCIDENCE (onset of disorder) and PREVALENCE (number of people with the disorder)
ideal control group
nearly identical to treatment group besides the actual treatment. researcher treats both gorups the same in terms of assessment and variable manipulation.
frusto effect.
a significant depression in results of control gorup after being disappointed that theyre not receiving treatment/getting bette.r Makes the treatment group look better than comparison.
3 methods to alleviate frusto effect/ expecation effects in control groups
1) placebo control groups: placebo is given to control groups to make them believe they are truly receiving treatment
2) double blinded study: researcher or pt bias does not occur because the researcher and the pt does not know who received what treatment.
3) comparative treatment research: instead of using a placebo/no drug group, researchers compare treatment methods.
allegience effect
if a treatment isn’t expected to work, researchers may not push for it to succeed.
how to prevent allegience effect
using group blinded studies.
process vs outcome research
process: “why does it work”?
outcome: +/- effects and results of the treatment. “does it work at all”?
what is a single case experimental design
a systematic study of an INDIVIDUAL unger a variety of EXPERIMENTAL conditions.
how is a single case experimental design different than a case study?
because the single case experimental design uses strategies to improve internal validity. case studies are observational and relies on interviews for the most part.
- single case experiments are also dif bc you are manipulating treatment.
3 methods for improving internal validity in a single case experimental design
1) repeated measures
2) withdrawal designs
3) multiple baselines
what is “repeated measures” and how do they improve internal validity in a single case experimental design
- the behaviour in a single individual is measured several times instead of only once before and after treatment. Determines how variable a behaviour is, and if there are any trends
trends allow you to see any true progressions in an individual. Treatment could have already been administered when the pts condition is imrpoving, making it look like the treatment caused the improvement.
what are withdrawal designs and how do they improve internal validity in a single case experimental design. process?
- researcher tries to determine whether the indep variable is responsible for changes in behaviour by removing it and seeing if the pt returns to baseline before treatment.
- must establish a baseline behaviour before treatment application and removal
- then, add the indep variable
- then go on “drug holiday”: withdraw the treatment and asses pt condition.
difference between a single case design and a true experiment
although both require manipulating an independent variable, in a single case, there is no control group
cons to a single case design
ethics
- if treatment is working, why remove it?
- can the treatment even be removed? Ex/ CBT- what stops the person from applying those techniques during a treatment holiday?
what are “multiple baselines” and how do they improve the internal validity in a single case experimental design
researcher starts treatment at dif settings, behaviours, or people. Ex/ home vs work.
-ex/ first only treating anxiety at home and watching it improve, then, applying the treatment at work and seeing if the condition improves there too. If the conditions only improve at the dif locations AFTER the treatment was given in those conditions, we can thus concolcude that the treatment actually does improve the condition.
pro: don’t need to withdraw a treatment. you have multiple locations, and the “before treatment” in each condition acts as multiple dif baselines. You just apply the treatment in a dif context.
Endophenotypes
genetic mechanisms that ultimately contribute to the underlying problems causing the symptoms and DIFFICULTIES experienced by people with psychological disorders.
ex/ there is no schinophrenia gene, but there are genes that are responsible for working memory problems that affect people with this disorder.
Proband
the family member with the trait singled out for study.
if there is genetic influence to the disorder, the trait should be more profound in ____ degree relatives.
if there is genetic influence to the disorder, the trait should be more profound in first degree relatives.
difficulties with family studies
families tend to live together and may actually just all be affected by the same environmental factor rather than a genetic complication.
____ studies allows us to the see the effect of genetics and environment.
adoption studies.
ex. do siblings raised in separate environments still have the same problems? probs a genetic thing then.
what is genetic linkage analysis
lets us use genetic markers to see the location of “problem” genes. If a match is discovered between an inherited genetic marker and a disorder, they are probably close together on the same chromosome. This alllows us to see gene localizations of endophenotypic genes.
con of genetic linkage analysis
problematic in making premature conclusions: just bc one individual has a link between a specific marker anda disorder, doesn’t mean everyone else with that genetic marker has that disorder. there is an inability to replicate findings as well.
gene association studies
compares genetic markers in larger groups of people with a particular disorder to people without a disorder If certain markers occurs more in ht epople with the disorder, it is assumed that markers are close to the genes involved with the disorder.
- different than gene linkage analysis because linkage analysis usually occurs in just one individual.
prospective studies
record changes over time as they occur.
- abnormal behaviour may have developmental changes that are seen in short term studies. but changes can also happen across development.
4 categories of preventative research
1) POSITIVE developmental strategies/health promotion
2) universal prevention strategies
3) selective prevention strategies
4) individual prevention strategies
POSITIVE developmental strategies/health promotion
efforts to prevent the entire population, even those not at risk, from later general problems
ex/ teaching an entire school system about positive coping mechanisms for stress, but not addressing specific drug use, sti issues etc.
universal prevention strategies
focus on the entire population, but targets certain risk factors (ex/ behavior problems in inner city youth)
selective prevention strategies
targets whole groups who are at risk (children whose parents have died)
indicated/individual prevention strategies
prevention strategies for individuals who are beginning to show signs of problems.
cross sectional designs are a type of __- study
correlational study. take samples of dif age groups and compare them on some characteristic
con of cross sectional designs
cohort effects: confounding age and experience that may cause differences across the cohorts.
pros and cons of longitudinal designs
pros: no cohort effects, all members of the study are subject to the same historical and culture events.
cons: high attrition rate, takes a long time, CROSS GENERATIONAL EFFECT : trying to generalize findings to groups whose experiences are dif from those of the study participants, who were all exposed to generally the same culture.
type of study that is a combination of longitudinal and cross sectional
SEQUENTIAL DESIGN. a repeated study of cohorts over time, ex/ looking at drug use in children in grade 7, 8 and 9 for two years.
why are cultural studies important
because looking at only a westernized view of psychopathology produces an ethnocentric view.
in cultural studies, cultural differences between groups is the independent variable. the cultural differences in attitudes towards mental health and their tolerances to psychopathological illness may differ.
the power of a program of research
significant issues are often not resolved by one perfectly designed study, but rather by a series of studies that examines dif aspects of the problem – a program of research.
- complex problems and questions are answered with a variety of research designs.
the more _____, the more confident the researcher can be about what caused the changes.
replication
true informed consent requires:
1) competence
2) volunteerism
3) full information
4) comprehension
ethical conduct boards are made up of:
2 research topic experts
1 ethics expert
1 law expert
some experiments involve deception. what must you do in order for an experiment like this to be ethical
1) you must tell the pt that they might not receive a treatment. (ex/ if your study uses a placebo control group)
2) they must be debriefed afterwards about the true purpose of the experiment.
how can children be allowed in studies?
1) confidentiality
2) protection from harm
3) debriefing afterwards
4) informed consent from caregiver, and from the child itself if the child is over 7 years old
5) simple and understandable language.
how are people trying to make research a more integrative field?
there is a push for involvement of people with the actual disorder to be involved with planning and research to improve the relevance and treatment of the study.
