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Intro to Behavioral Neuroscience > Chapter 17: Learning and Memory > Flashcards

Chapter 17: Learning and Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Plasticity

A

“changeability” of neurons, mechanisms underlying learning and memory

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2
Q

Learning and memory have only ever been….

A

inferred

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3
Q

Memory is not….

A

instantly formed

(can’t remember something from a moment ago but can remember things from years ago)

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4
Q

Stages of Memory

A

Responsible for our ability to recall things depending on the length of time from event and the mechanisms underlying them.

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5
Q

What are the 5 Stages of memory

A
  1. Starts as senses
  2. Sensory Buffers
  3. Short-term memory
  4. Intermediate- term memory
  5. Long-term memory
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6
Q

What senses are apart of memory?

A

-Visual
-Auditory
-Olfactory
-Tactile

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7
Q

Sensory Buffers

A

An element of the type of memory that stores the sensory impression of a scene

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8
Q

Short-Term Memory

A

A form of memory that usually lasts only for seconds, or if rehearsal continues, especially while being used during performance of a task

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9
Q

What part of the brain does short-term memory involve?

A

Prefrontal cortex
- Each region has different attributes

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10
Q

Working Memory

A

Type of short-term memory that holds a limited amount of information available for ready access during performance of a task (less than 30 seconds)

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11
Q

What is the model of memory?

A

Phonological Loop&raquo_space; Visuospatial sketchpad&raquo_space;
Episodic buffer

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12
Q

Intermediate Term Memory

A

A form of memory that lasts longer than short term memory but not as long as long-term memory

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13
Q

Long Term Memory

A

Enduring form of memory that lasts days, weeks, months or years and has a very large capacity

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14
Q

Encoding

A

Stage of memory formation in which the information entering sensory channels is passed into short-term memory

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15
Q

Consolidation

A

Stage of memory formation in which information in short-term or intermediate-term memory is transferred to long-term memory

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16
Q

What is consolidation resistant to?

A

Disruption and forgetting

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17
Q

Retrieval

A

Process in memory during which a stored memory is used by an organism .

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18
Q

Storage

A

Putting memories away for later use

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19
Q

Rehearsal

A

Simply going over information multiple times

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20
Q

What two factors can help influence long-term memory storage?

A
  1. Connecting new information with old information
  2. Emotional arousal.
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21
Q

Explain the process of memory consolidation.

A
  1. The peripheral stress hormones and amygdala are activated
  2. The amygdala sends axons to various brain structures to influence how those regions process information (can strengthen regions)
  3. Stress hormones can activate the amygdala, and cortisol can directly affect a region

= enhance memory consolidation after learning event

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22
Q

Explain the Patient H.M case.

A
  • Received a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy
  • After the surgery he suffered from anterograde amnesia.
  • He completed mirror tracing and continuously improved his sills but could not recall doing the task
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23
Q

What does the patient H.M. case suggest?

A

Memories are monolithic (there are different kinds of memories)

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24
Q

Bilateral Medial Temporal Lobectomy

A

Removal of hippocampus, amygdala, and cortices around the hippocampus

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25
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Inability to form new memories beginning with the onset of a disorder, but could remember memories from before surgery

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26
Q

What does anterograde amnesia tell us about?

A

Consolidation vs storage

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27
Q

What was patient H.S.’s long term memory affected by?

A

Anterograde amnesia

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28
Q

Declarative Memory

A

Memories that you can explain with others

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29
Q

What was Patient H.M’s relation to declarative memories?

A

He was unable to form declarative memories

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30
Q

What are declarative memories broken down into?

A
  1. Episodic memory
  2. Semantic memory
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31
Q

Episodic memory

A

Personal memories of life events

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32
Q

Semantic memory

A

General knowledge of the world

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33
Q

What parts of the brain do episodic and semantic memory involve?

A
  • Medial temporal lobe
  • Neocortex
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34
Q

Non-declarative Memory

A

Things you know that you can show by doing

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35
Q

What was Patient H.M.’s relation to non-declarative memory?

A

He was capable of these memories as shown by his skill of mirror tracing

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36
Q

What is non-declarative memory broken down into?

A
  • Learning
  • Priming
  • Conditioning
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37
Q

Skill Learning

A

Learning to perform a task that requires motor coordination

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38
Q

What parts of the brain does skill learning involve?

A
  • Striatum
  • Motor cortex
  • Cerebellum
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39
Q

Priming

A

Exposure to a stimulus facilitates subsequent response to the same or similar stimulus

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40
Q

What part of the brain does priming include?

A

Neocortex

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41
Q

What is an example of priming?

A

Being more likely to use a word you heard recently

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42
Q

Conditioning

A

Neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the response normally elicited by another stimulus after the two stimuli are paired

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43
Q

What part of the brain does conditioning involve?

A
  • Amygdala
  • Cerebellum
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44
Q

What is an example of conditioning?

A

Salivating when you see your favorite food

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45
Q

What are the two kinds of long-term memory?

A
  1. Declarative Memory
  2. Non-declarative memory
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46
Q

Non associative Learning

A

A form of learning when an animal/person changes their response to a stimulus without associating it with a positive or negative reinforcement.

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47
Q

What is an example of non-associative learning?

A

Being unaware of an air conditioner that is constantly running

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48
Q

Spatial Memory

A

The ability to remember the location of objects and the spatial relationships between them

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49
Q

What part of the brain does spatial memory involve?

A
  • Hippocampus
  • Cortex
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50
Q

What is an example of spatial memory?

A

Remembering where you put certain objects

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51
Q

Explain the Patient N.A. case.

A
  • Patient had damage to the diencephalon, thalamus, and hypothalamus connections
  • Had similar symptoms to patient H.M (even though N.A doesn’t have a damaged hippocampus)
52
Q

What does the Patient N.A. case suggest?

A

parts of the diencephalon and hippocampus work together in formation of new memories

53
Q

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A

Failure to recall past events and recognize familiar objects

54
Q

What causes Korsakoff’s Syndrome?

A

Thiamine deficiency

55
Q

What does thiamine deficiency typically result from?

A

Alcoholism

56
Q

What parts of the brain are damaged in Korsakoff’s Syndrome?

A
  • Mammillary bodies
  • Basal frontal cortex
57
Q

Are patients aware when they have Korsakoff’s Syndrome?

A

They usually deny anything is wrong and confabulate

58
Q

Confabulate

A

Fill a gap in memory with falsification

59
Q

What does Korsakoff’s Syndrome show the importance of?

A

The medial thalamus and mammillary bodies to form declarative memories

60
Q

Mammillary Bodies

A

May be important system connecting medial temporal regions to the thalamus

61
Q

Explain the Patient K.C. case.

A
  • Patient sustained damage to the cortex
  • Could not retrieve personal memories but had good general knowledge
62
Q

What does the Patient K.C. case suggest?

A

We can subdivide declarative memories into episodic and semantic memories

63
Q

What is the path for how declarative memories are stored and formed?

A
  1. Sensory processing in cortex
  2. Parahippocampal, entorhinal, perihinal cortex
  3. Hippocampus
  4. Medial diencephalon (mammillary bodies)
  5. Storage in cortex (layer 1)
64
Q

Primary vs Recency Effect

A

Tells us we have different TEMPORAL stages of memory

65
Q

What types of effects does hippocampal damage have?

A

Differential effects

66
Q

Differential Effects

A

Tells us different neural structures mediate primary vs recency effects

67
Q

FMRI

A

Used to look at activity during learning, and then look at how well people do during a test a week later

  • also look at activity during retrieval
68
Q

What does evidence suggest the hippocampal system and prefrontal cortex are important for?

A

Consolidation and retrieval

69
Q

What is the theory regarding the hippocampus?

A

The hippocampus slowly puts memories into the cortex, which helps them coordinate overtime

70
Q

Where are memories stored?

A

Parts of the cortex near the specific sensory cortex involved in the memory.

71
Q

Where does the neocortex store memories?

A

In different areas for different types of memories

72
Q

Tools vs Animals

A

Different lesions can produce different loses of memories

73
Q

Place Learning

A

Learning to orient yourself in an environment and go to the location

74
Q

What part of the brain does place learning involve?

A

Hippocampus

75
Q

Habitat Learning

A

Learning to make the same motor response (habits)

76
Q

What part of the brain does habitat learning involve?

A

Caudate nucleus

77
Q

What is an example of habitat learning?

A

Always turning right

78
Q

What do rats form?

A

A cognitive map

79
Q

Cognitive Map

A

Understanding of the spatial organization

80
Q

What is the key structure involved in the cognitive map?

A

Hippocampus

81
Q

Hippocampus

A

Organizes relationships among lots of information, including space and time

82
Q

Explain the different cells in the hippocampus.

A

-Has spatial cells and place cells

  • Grid cells feed in to form place cells
  • The cells for basis for declarative memory formation
83
Q

What are the 3 factors that induce synaptic changes?

A
  1. Environment enrichment
  2. Aplysia and simple learning
  3. Hippocampus and long-term potentiation
84
Q

What causes memories to be stored?

A

Changes in the brain

85
Q

Neuroplasticity

A

The ability of neurons and neural circuits to be remodeled by events

86
Q

How can neuroplasticity be seen?

A

By electrically stimulating cells and recording post synaptic potentials

87
Q

Long-term potentiation

A

Repeated fast stimulation of the presynaptic cell can lead to a long-lasting increase in the post synaptic response

88
Q

What are the 3 factors that can store memories?

A
  1. Changes involving synaptic transmitters
    =Greater release of NT molecules and more sensitive post synaptic membrane
  2. Modulation by interneurons
    = Hyper polarization or depolarization of axon terminals (NT release)
  3. Formation of new synapses or rearrangement of current ones
89
Q

What allows ions to pass through the receptor-channel?

A

Change in the receptor sensitivity or alteration

90
Q

Environmental Enrichment Experiments

A

Animals are housed in large social groups in special cages containing toys and other features. This condition provides enhanced opportunities for learning perceptual, motor skills, and social learning.

91
Q

What happens to the cortex of animals who undergo environmental enrichment experiments?

A

They have a heavier and thicker cortex

  • Cortical neurons have more branches
  • Larger and more cortical synapses
92
Q

What do environmental enrichment experiments suggest?

A

The environment dramatically alters the basic physiology and structure of the brain

93
Q

Aplysia

A

Sea slugs

94
Q

What do sea slugs show?

A

Habituation and sensitization of reflexes (simple learning and memory)

95
Q

Habituation

A

Organism becomes less responsive following repeated presentations of a stimulus

96
Q

Sensitization

A

Organism becomes more responsive to most stimuli after being exposed to unusually strong/painful stimulation

97
Q

What is an example of habituation and sensitization in sea slugs?

A

Siphon- Withdrawal Reflex

98
Q

Siphon-Withdrawal Reflex

A

Touch the siphon of a sea slug and it will retract its gill, but will repeat stimulation, it will retract its gill less because it learns there is no danger.

99
Q

What is the siphon-withdrawl reflex causes by?

A

Changes in the synapse between the sensory cell that detects the touch and the motor neuron that retracts the gill

100
Q

Explain short-term habituation in sea slugs.

A
  • When the sea slug is first stimulated, it retracts its gill to protect it.
  • If it is stimulated repeatedly, it habituates to the stimulus and no longer retracts its gill.

= release less NT

101
Q

Explain long-term habituation in sea slugs.

A
  • When the sea slug is stimulated repeatedly over days, it habituates faster each day.
  • Eventually the sea slug has no response to the stimulation due to retraction of some synaptic terminals.
102
Q

What can reflexes do?

A

Sensitize (become more responsive)

103
Q

What is sensitization mediated by?

A

A facilitating neuron that releases serotonin on the presynaptic neuron.

104
Q

What does the stimulation of presynaptic neurons induce?

A

Tetanus

105
Q

Tetanus

A

rapid burst of stimulation

106
Q

What are the 3 pathways where long-term potentiation occurs?

A
  1. Preforant Pathway
  2. Mossy Fiber Pathway
  3. Schaffer Collaterals
107
Q

Perforant Pathway

A

Entorhinal cortex
»
Dentate gyrus

108
Q

Mossy Fiber Pathway

A

Dentate gyrus
»
CA3 pyramidal cells

109
Q

Schaffer Collaterals

A

CA3 pyramidal cells
»
CA1 pyramidal cells

110
Q

Why is the NMDA receptor voltage gated?

A

A MG2+ ion blocks the channel unless the cell is already depolarized

111
Q

What would NOT open the NMDA receptor?

A

A single release of NT

112
Q

Explain the effect of Inducing Long-Term Potentiation

A
  • Rapidly stimulating the presynaptic terminal leads to depolarization and increased NT release.
  • Activates NMDA receptors which allows calcium to enter the post synaptic neuron.
  • The influx of calcium triggers intracellular signaling pathways that strengthen synaptic connections
113
Q

Explain the Enhanced Synapse after LTP

A
  • There are more AMPA receptors after LTP occurs
    = larger postsynaptic response
  • May have more NT release with a single stimulation
114
Q

Explain the expanded synaptic size after LTP

A
  • After time has passed and new proteins are made, you may get an overall larger synapse with more inside
115
Q

How long do the earlier stages of LTP last?

A

About an hour

116
Q

What is early stages of LTP dependent on?

A

1.Change in receptor channel properties
- increased conductance makes more sodium come through

  1. Change in number of receptors
    -increased number
117
Q

What is early stages of LTP not dependent on?

A

Protein synthesis
(required for later stages)

118
Q

Correlational Observations

A

The time course of LTP is similar to the time course of memory formation

119
Q

Somatic Intervention

A

Things that block LTP and block memory formation

120
Q

Behavioral Intervention

A

Training in a memory task creates LTP in the brain

121
Q

Where are new neurons produced?

A

Dentate gyrus

122
Q

What is the production of new neurons crucial for?

A

Learning

123
Q

What do older adults show deficits in?

A

-Working memory
-Retrieval of memories

(requires effort with no external cues)

124
Q

What do external cues help trigger?

A

memories in older adults

125
Q

What are the 3 causes of deficits?

A
  1. Impairments in encoding and retrieval, less brain activation

2.Loss of neurons/neural connections

3.Deficits in cholinergic transmission (problems in the basal forebrain system)

126
Q
A

Intro to Behavioral Neuroscience (19 decks)

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