Chapter 16- Skinner: Behavioral Analysis Flashcards
A strict adherence to observable behavior that avoids all hypothetical constructs such as ego, treats, drives, needs, hunger, and so forth is called:
Radical behaviorism
As a _______ and _________, skinner rejected the notion of free will and emphasized the primacy of environmental influences on behavior
Determinist and environmentalist
Thorndike, and early behaviorist, observed that learning takes place mostly because of the effects that follow a response, and he called this observation:
Law of effect
This law of Thorndike stated that responses followed by a satisfier tend to be learned, a concept that anticipated Skinners use of positive reinforcement to shape behavior
Law of effect
To be scientific, Skinner insisted psychology must avoid internal mental factors and confine itself to ________ physical events
Observable. Although he rejected internal states as being outside the realm of science, he did not deny their existence but simply insisted that they should not be used to explain behavior
Because the purpose of science is to predict and control, Skinner argued that psychologists should be concerned with determining the conditions under which human behavior occurs. By discovering these conditions, psychologist can _______ and ______ human behavior
Predict and control
Skinner held that science has three principal characteristics:
1) it’s findings are cumulative
2) it rests on an attitude that values empirical observation
3) it searches for order and reliable relationships
Skinner recognize two kinds of conditioning:
Classical and operant
According to Skinner, in this type of conditioning, a neutral stimulus is paired with, or immediately preceeds, and unconditioned stimulus a number of times until it is capable of bringing about a previously unconditioned response, now called the conditioned response. The simplest examples include reflexive behavior
Classical conditioning
Skinner believe that most human behaviors are learned through this type of conditioning where reinforcement is used to increase the probability that a given behavior will recur
Operant conditioning
In operant conditioning, this is the environment in which behavior takes place
The antecedent
In operant conditioning, this is the response
The behavior
In operant conditioning, this is what follows the behavior
The consequence
In behavioral analysis, this is a procedure in which the experimenter or the environment first rewards gross approximations of the behavior, then closer approximations, and finally the desired behavior itself to mold complex human behavior
Shaping. This process of reinforcing is called successive approximations
According to Skinner, each of us has a history of being reinforced by reacting to some elements in our environment but not to others. This history of differential reinforcement results in:
Operant discrimination
According to Skinner, a response to a similar environment in the absence of previous reinforcement is called:
Stimulus generalization
According to Skinner, reinforcement has two effects:
It strengthens the behavior and it rewards the person
According to Skinner, any stimulus that increases the probability that a given behavior will occur is called:
Positive reinforcement. Food, water, sex, money, social approval, and physical comfort usually are examples
According to Skinner, this is the strengthening of behavior through the removal of an aversive stimulus
Negative reinforcement. The reduction or avoidance of loud noises, shocks, and hunger pangs are examples
According to Skinner, any event that decreases a behavior either by presenting an aversive stimulus or by removing a positive one is called:
Punishment. Although punishment does not strengthen a response, neither does it inevitably we can it. The effects of punishment are much less predictable than those of reward
What are some effects of punishment?
It suppresses behavior, it can condition a negative feeling by associating a strong aversive stimulus with the behavior being punished, the spread of its effects-any stimulus associated with the punishment may be suppressed or avoided
According to Skinner, these reinforcers are those environmental stimuli that are not by nature satisfying but become so because they are associated with such unlearned or primary reinforcers such as food, water, sex, or physical comfort
Conditioned reinforcers. Money is an example because it can be exchanged for a great variety of primary reinforcers
According to Skinner, this type of reinforcer is associated with more than one primary reinforcer
A generalized reinforcer. Examples are attention, approval, affection, submission of others, and tokens or money
In this schedule of reinforcement, the organism is reinforced for every response. This type of schedule increases the frequency of a response but it is an inefficient use of the reinforcer. Skinner
Continuous schedule
Skinner preferred this schedule of reinforcement which is based either on the behavior of the organism or on elapsed time. It is more efficient and produces responses that are more resistant to extinction
Intermittent schedules
With this type of intermittent schedule, the organism is reinforced intermittently according to the number of responses it makes
A fixed-ratio schedule
With this type of intermittent schedule, the organism is reinforced after the n’th response on the average
Variable-ratio schedule. Playing slot machines is an example
With this type of intermittent schedule, the organism is reinforced for the first response following a designated period of time
Fixed-interval schedule
With this type of intermittent schedule, the organism is reinforced after the lapse of random or varied periods of time
Variable-interval schedule
According to Skinner, this is the tendency of a previously acquired response to become progressively weekend upon non-reinforcement
Extinction
According to Skinner, this type of extinction takes place when an experimenter systematically withholds reinforcement of a previously learned response until the probability of that response diminishes to zero
Operant extinction
This person’s theory emerged from laboratory studies of animals and humans and avoid speculations about hypothetical constructs and concentrates almost exclusively on observable behavior
Skinners behavioral analysis
Skinner believed that human behavior is shaped by three forces:
Natural selection, the evolution of cultures, and the individuals personal history of reinforcement
Skinner believed that as a species, our behavior is shaped by the ________ of _______. Those behaviors, for example sex and aggression, that were beneficial to the human species tended to survive, whereas those that did not tended to drop out
Contingencies of survival
According to Skinner, those societies that evolved certain ________ practices tended to survive. Humans do not make cooperative decisions to do what is best for their society, but those societies whose members behave in a cooperative manner tended to survive.
Cultural
Skinner recognized the existence of such interstates as drives and self-awareness, but he rejected the notion that they can _____ _______
Explain behavior
According to Skinner, _____ referred to the effects of deprivation and satiation and to the corresponding probability that the organism will respond, but they are not the causes of behavior
Drives
Skinner believed that _______ such as fear or anger, can be accounted for by the contingencies of survival and the contingencies of reinforcement
Emotions. Intentions or purposes are physically felt stimuli within the organism and not mentalistic events responsible for behavior
Skinner believed that human behavior is subject to the same principles of operant conditioning as simple animal behavior, but it is much more complex and difficult to predict or control. Skinner explained ______ as a result of random or accidental behaviors that happened to be rewarded. He believe that most of our behavior is ________ or automatic and that not thinking about certain experiences is reinforcing. He viewed ______ as covert and symbolic forms of behavior that are subject to the same contingencies every enforcement as any other behavior
Creativity, unconscious, dreams
According to Skinner, societies exercise control over their members to laws, rules, and customs that transcend any one person’s means of counter control. There are four basic methods of social control:
Operant conditioning, describing contingencies, deprivation and satiation, physical restraint
According to Skinner, with this type of social control, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and the two techniques of punishment are used
Operant conditioning
According to Skinner, this technique of social control is to describe to a person and inform them of the consequences of their not-yet-emitted behavior
Describing contingencies. Threats, and advertising are examples
According to Skinner, this technique of social control involves depriving people or satiating them with reinforcers
Deprivation and satiation
According to Skinner, this method of social control involves restraints such as holding children back from a deep ravine or putting lawbreakers in prison. It acts to counter the effects of conditioning, and it results in behavior contrary to that which would’ve been emitted had a person not being restrained
Physical restraint
Although Skinner denied the existence of free will, he did recognize that people manipulate variables within their own environment and thus exercise some measure of:
Self-control
According to Skinner, this self control technique includes the use of things such as tools, machines, and financial resources to alter their environment
Physical aids
According to Skinner, this technique of self control increases the probability of the desired behavior. For example, a student wanting to concentrate on his studies can turn off of distracting television set
Changing the environment
According to Skinner, this technique of using self-control involves escaping from aversive stimulus only by producing the proper response. For example, a woman can set an alarm clock so that the aversive sound can be stopped only by getting out of bed to shut it off
Arranging the environment
According to Skinner, people can take ____, especially alcohol, as a means of self control to control their behavior.
Drugs
According to Skinner, to avoid behaving in an undesirable fashion, this technique of self control could be an obsessive woman counting repetitious patterns and wallpaper to avoid thinking about previous experiences that would create guilt
Doing something else
According to Skinner, one social control is excessive, people can use three basic strategies for counteracting it:
They can escape, revolt, or use passive resistance
According to Skinner, with this defensive strategy, people withdraw from the controlling agent either physically or psychologically.
Escape
According to skinner, this counteracting strategy involves behaving more actively, counter acting the controlling agent. Rebelling
Revolt
According to Skinner, people who counteract through this strategy are more subtle than those who rebel and more irritating to the controllers and those who rely on escape. It’s conspicuous feature is stubbornness
Passive resistance
According to Skinner, these types of behaviors follow from self-defeating techniques of counteracting social control or from unsuccessful attempts at self-control. They may include excessively vigorous behavior, excessively restrained behavior, blocking out reality by simply pay no attention to aversive stimuli, and self-diluting responses such as boasting, rationalizing, or claiming to be the Messiah. Another behavior is self punishment
Inappropriate behaviors
Skinner believed that ________ is one of the chief obstacles blocking psychology’s attempt to become scientific. However, his ideas on shaping behavior not only have had a significant impact on behavior therapy but also extend to a description of how all therapy works
Psychotherapy. Others have used operant conditioning principles to shape behavior in a therapeutic setting. Behavior therapist’s playing active role in the treatment process, using behavior modification techniques and pointing out the positive consequences of some behaviors and the aversive effects of others
Skinner’s theory has generated more research than any other personality theory. Much of this research can be divided into two questions:
How does operant conditioning affect personality? How does personality affect conditioning?
Research sparked by Skinner’s theory has shown that when given a choice, smokers would choose a cigarette rather than
Money
Research on how personality affects conditioning sparked by Skinners theory has found that for highly anxious people, impulsivity acts as a _____ to responsiveness to negative stimuli.
Buffer. The main point was reinforced by the study, people very in their responses to reinforcers depending on their personalities
Sparked by Skinners behavioral analysis, recent advances in imaging have allowed researchers to analyze individual differences in brain activation with responses to stimuli such as food. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, John beaver found that measures of subjects brain activation upon exposure to pictures of rewarding foods versus bland foods found that people who scored higher on the personality variable of behavioral activation also had greater activation to pictures of ________ foods.
Rewarding. These results supported the general conclusion that personality is related to differences in how we biologically respond to rewards
On the six criteria of a useful theory, Skinners approach rates very high in five areas and average in one
Hi on its ability to generate research, to guide action, to be falsified, on internal consistency, and parsimony. It rates average on its ability to organize knowledge
Describe Skinners concept of humanity
It is completely deterministic and causal and emphasizes unconscious behavior and the uniqueness of each person’s history of reinforcement within a mostly social environment. Skinner is quite optimistic in his view of humanity
