Chapter 1 Flashcards
What is Psychology?
The scientific study of behaviour and the mind.
Define Behaviour
Refers to actions and responses that we can directly observe.
Define mind
Refers to internal states and processes, such as thoughts and feelings, that cannot be seen directly and that must be inferred from observabl, measurable responses
What is Clinical Psychology?
The study and treatment of mental disorders.
What is Cognitive Psychology?
specializes in the field of mental processes, especially from a model that views the mind as an information processor
How does Psychology overlap with other domains?
Science is…
A process that involves systematically gathering and evaluating emperical evidence to answer questions and test beliefs about the natural world.
Empircal Evidence is…
Evidence gained through experience and observation, which includes evidence that is manipulated and tinkered with.
Define systematic
Done according to a fixed plan.
Why do observations in science need to be systematic?
To make them as objective and precise as possible.
What are some misconceptions that arise about human behaviour from our own faulty thinking?
- Taking mental shortcuts when making judgements
- We sometimes fail to think of alternative explanations
- Fail to test established beliefs further - confirmation bias.
Define confirmation bias
only paying attention to information that supports ones already established beliefs or downplaying other information that is inconsistent with already established beliefs.
What is a strength of science?
self-correcting process.
Define scientific progress
Evolution of knowledge.
What does critical thinking involve?
Taking an active role in actually understanding the world around you Instead of just receiving information and doing nothing with it.
It also means to evaluate factualizations set before
What questions should you ask to evaluate a claim?
- What exactly is the claim?
- Who is making the claim? Are the trustworthy/ credible?
- How good is the evidence?
- Are other explanations possible? can they be evaluated?
- What is the most appropriate conclusion?
What are the 4 central goals of Psychology?
- Describe behaviour
- Explain and understand the causes
- Predict behaviour under certain conditions
- Influence or control behaviour through knowledge and control of its causes to enhance human wellfare
Define levels of analysis
Behaviours can be examined at different levels:
- biological level
- psychological level
- environmental level
Define mind-body interactions
The relationship between mental processes of the brain and bodily functions
Define perspective
A theoretical vantage point from which to analyze behaviour and its cause
Define mind-body dualism
deduces that the mind and body are separate entities that cannot be related. The body is physical but the mind is is not subject to the same physical laws.
How was the mind and body first thought to interact? Who developed this theory?
through the pineal gland by Rene Descartes
Define monoism
opposite to dualism, this theory hold that mind and body are one and the mind is not a separate spiritual entity.
Who advocated monism?
Thomas Hobbes
Define British empiricism. Who coined this?
That knowledge and ideas are gained through the sense emperically. Observation is more valid than reason because reason could prove wrong.
John Lock
Define Psychophysics
How brain processes can be determined/ experienced through physical stimuli.
Define structuralism
Analysis of the mind in terms of its basic structure
Who founded structuralism?
Wilhelm Wundt & Edward Titchener
Define introspection
Looking within
Define functionalism
Study of the functions of conciousness rather than the structure.
Who is a leader in the functionalist movement?
William James
How does functionalism endure in two modern day fields?
- Cognitive psychology
- Evolutionary pyscology
Define psychodynamic perspective
Studies causes of behaviour based off of the inner workings of the personality, emphasizing the unconsciousness
Who developed the psychodynamic theory?
Sigmund Freud
Define free association
expressing any thoughts that come to mind
Define psychoanalysis
Internal psychological forces that are primarly unconscious.
What is a primary defense mechanism proposed by Freud?
Repression
What do modern psychodynamic theories focus on?
Early relationships and how they influence behaviour and shape ones perspectives.
Describe the behavioural perspective
This persepctive looks at how the external environment drives our behaviours based off of acquired habits and immediate stimuli
define tabula-rasa
A blank slate - human mind when first born
Define law of effect
behaviour is more likely to occur when there is a benefit
Define behaviourism
School of thought that control of the environment through learning renders bahviour
Who led to movement of behaviourism?
John B. Watson
Who was a lead 20th century behaviourist?
B. F. Skinner
Describe behaviour modifications
techniques aimed at controlling the environment in order to reduce problematic behaviour and increase positive behaviour
Who is a leading cognitive behavourist?
Alberta Bandura
Describe cognitive behaviourism
learning experiences and environmental factors effect behaviour by relaying information about how to behave
Describe the humanistic perspective
emphasizes free will, personal growth and autonomy, and finding ones purpose in life - the meaning of existence relies squarely in our hands.
Define self-actualization
reaching of ones individual potential
Describe belongingness
Everyones need for social acceptance and companionship
Describe positive psychology movement
emphasizes the study of human strengths, fulfillment and optimal living - focuses on the good and not the bad
Describe Gestalt psychology
Study of how elements of experience are organized systematically in the brain into a ‘whole’ perception
What is referred to as the cognitive revolution?
1960-1970’s peak interest in mental processes
Describe cognitive psychology
study of mental processes both conscious and unconscious by which people problem solve, make decisions, form perceptions and learn
descrive cognitive neuroscience
links the biological perspective with congnitive psychology to examine brain recordings during tasks with brain imaging techniques
Describe the sociocultural perspective
describes how the social environment and cultural learning influence behaviour, thoughts and feelings.
What does the word presence include?
- physical presence
- implied presence
- imagined presence
Define culture
Traditions, values, behaviour and beliefs that is shared with a large group of people and is passed down to following generations
Define norms
Typically a set of unwritten rules that define appropriate behaviour for members of a group - often set by culture
Define cultural psychology
Studies how culture is transmitted through generations and the psychological differences and similarities amoungst cultures
What is an important difference amoung cultures?
The extent to which they emphasize individualism and collectivism
What does individualism emphasize?
personal growth and self identity based on ones own accomplishments/ success and attributes
What cultures typically represent individualism?
Northern Europe and North America
What does collectivism emphasize?
Identity is tied greatly to the family and other social groups and and individual goals are subordinated to the those of the group
What cultures typically represent collectivism?
Asian, African, South America
Describe the biological perspective
examines how brain processes and other bodily functions influence behaviour
What three classes of causal factors does the biological perspective focus on?
- sensory experiences
- emotions
- thoughts
define neurotransmitters
Chemicals released by nerve cells that allow them to communicate with each other
Describe behaviour genetics
The study of how genetics play a role in behaviour
what is meant by natural selection?
Essentially if specific traits give certain members advantages those members are more likely to survive and pass on those traits
describe revolutionary psychology
Six to explain how evolution shaped modern human behaviour it also stresses how behaviour has changed similarly to Bodies
Describe sociobiology
Holds that complex social behaviours are also built into the human based off of evolution - Once genetic survival is more important than one’s physical survival
What are the six major psychological perspectives?
- psychodynamic
- behavioural
- humanistic
- cognitive
- sociocultural
- biological
What three levels of analysis can behaviour be examined?
- Biological levels of analysis
- Psychological levels of analysis
- Environmental levels of analysis
Describe an interaction means
the way in which one factor influences behaviour depends on the rpesence of another factor.
What are six important themes of contemporary psychology?
- Psychology is empirical
- our experiences of the world are subjective
- behaviour is determined by multiple causual factors
- nature and nurture compliment each other
- pyschological capacities have evolved
- cultural environment affects behaviour and mental processes
What is the focus of biological analysis a question?
Genetic inheritance brain processes hormones and evolutionary changes that underlie behaviour
What is the focus of psychological analysis?
Examines how behaviour is influenced by mental processes and psychological motives.
What is the focus of environmental analysis?
Behaviour and thought shaped by physical and social context such as culture
