Chapter 1 Flashcards
Critical thinking
Thinking that examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (I-knew-it-all-along)
Theory
An explanation that organizes and predicts observations
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Operational Definitions
A statement of procedures (operations) used to define variables – it allows us to measure variables
Replicate
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
Case study
An observation technique on which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles (of us all), can suggest hypotheses for future study
Survey
A technique used to find out the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them
False Consensus Effect
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
Population
All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study (except for national studies)
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Naturalistic Observations
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
Scatter plots
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. He amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation. Little scatter indicates higher correlation.
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variable) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). Random assignment controls the factors.
Double-blind procedure
Experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are blind about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo (drug evaluation studies).
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent
Experimental Condition
The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable *apply independent variable
Control Condition
The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition that serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment *do not apply independent variable
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups (experiments)
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied (violent tv watching)
Dependent Variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable (people engaging in violent acts)
Overconfidence
Thinking we know more than we do
Scientific method
Making observations, forming theories, then refining the theories in the light of new observations
Mode
The most frequently occurring score in a distribution (mode most)
Mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by fading the scores and then dividing by the number of scores (mean average)
Median
The middle score in a distribution; half of the scores are above it and half the scores are below (median middle)
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Statistical significance
A statistical statement if how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Culture
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Wording effects
How something is worded and affects the opinion of the audience
