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Ecology > Ch. 7: Evolution and Adaptation > Flashcards

Ch. 7: Evolution and Adaptation Flashcards

1
Q

traits are a combination of ____ + ____

A

genotype + environment

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2
Q

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A

molecule of 2 strands of nucleotides in double helix

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3
Q

nucleotides: __ + ___ + ___

A

sugar + phosphate group + 1 of 4 nitrogenous bases

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4
Q

nitrogenous bases

A

A (adenine), T (thymine), C (cytosine), G (guanine)

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5
Q

chromosomes

A

long strands of DNA wound around proteins into compact structure

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6
Q

Genes

A

regions of DNA that code for proteins for trait

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7
Q

Alleles

A

different forms of 1 gene
- 1 from each parent: 1 one each gamete (haploid- 1 set of chromosomes)

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8
Q

Polygenic trait

A

1 trait determined by several genes (several alleles)
- ex: ABO Blood Type

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9
Q

benefit of polygenic traits

A

allows for wide range of phenotypes

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10
Q

Pleiotropy

A

1 gene affects multiple traits

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11
Q

Epistasis

A

expression of 1 gene is controlled by another gene

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12
Q

Heterozygous

A

2 diff alleles of 1 gene (Bb)

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13
Q

Homozygous

A

2 identical alleles

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14
Q

Codominant

A

2 alleles contribute to phenotypes

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15
Q

Recessive

A

masked by dominant

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16
Q

Gene pool

A

all alleles from individuals in a population

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17
Q

Random assortment

A

haploid gametes w/ any combination of alleles from diploid parent

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18
Q

Mutation

A

random change in sequence of nucleotides in region of DNA (gene or expression of gene)

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19
Q

Recombination

A

reshuffling of genes when DNA is copied during meiosis and chromosomes exchange genetic material

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20
Q

3 means for genetic variation

A

random assortment, mutation, recombination

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21
Q

Genetic drift

A

when genetic variation is lost bc of random variation in mating, mortality, fecundity, and inheritance

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22
Q

Bottleneck effect

A

reduction of genetic diversity in population bc of large reduction in size

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23
Q

Founder effect

A

small number of individuals leave large population to colonize new area and bring w/ them only small amount of genetic variation

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24
Q

Selection

A

certain phenotypes are favored to survive and reproduce over other phenotypes

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25
Q

Stabilizing selection

A

individuals w/ intermediate phenotypes have higher survival and reproductive success than those w/ extreme phenotypes

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26
Q

Directional selection

A

individuals w/ one extreme phenotype have higher fitness than avg population

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27
Q

Disruptive selection

A

individuals w/ either extreme phenotype have higher fitness than individuals with intermediate phenotype

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28
Q

3 types of selection (nonrandom processes)

A

stabilizing selection, directional selection, disruptive selection

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29
Q

Microevolution

A

evolution at population level

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30
Q

Artificial selection

A

humans decide which individuals will breed and the breeding is done w/ preconceived goals for specific traits

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31
Q

Industrial melanism

A

industrial activities cause habitats to become darker due to pollution, so individuals w/ darker phenotypes are favored

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32
Q

Macroevolution

A

evolution at higher level of organization (new species)
- levels of: species, genera, families, orders, phyla

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33
Q

Speciation

A

evolution of new species

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34
Q

Phylogenetic trees

A

hypothesized patterns in relationship b/w populations, species, genera

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35
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

evolution of new species through geographic isolation

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36
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

evolution of new species w/o geographic isolation

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37
Q

Polyploid (polyploidy)

A

species w/ 3+ sets of chromosomes
- diploid –> tetraploid (3)
- can’t breed w/ original species can cause speciation
- common in plants!

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38
Q

Adaptations

A

evolutionary change in behavior, physiology and morphology that increases fitness

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39
Q

adaptation takes place only on the ___ level

A

population

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40
Q

adaptations are produced through

A

natural selection

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41
Q

forms of adaptations (examples)

A
  • behavior allows better evasion of predators (camouflage, etc.)
  • protein that function better at body temp
  • anatomical feature allows access to new resources
  • producing toxins to decrease competition
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42
Q

crypsis

A

camouflage
- the ability of an organism to conceal itself especially from a predator by having a color, pattern, and shape that allows it to blend into the surrounding environment

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43
Q

vestigial structures

A

feature that was an adaptation for ancestors, but have evolved to be nonfunctional for current day organisms bc environment has changed
- ex: appendix

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44
Q

4 requirements for adaptations:

A
  • heritable (genetic)
  • functional (usable)
  • adaptive (increased fitness)
  • current function
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45
Q

natural selection

A

survival of the fit (fit enough) to survive and successfully reproduce
- does not produce perfect organisms

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46
Q

short-comings of natural selection

A
  • lack of existing genetic variation necessary
  • changing 1 feature effects another feature (longer legs = run faster, but break easier)
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47
Q

jury-rigged design

A
  • some species are all women (hermaphrodites)
    -constrains possible variations
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48
Q

evolution

A

change in gene frequency over time to increase fitness (survival and reproduction)

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49
Q

chemical evolution

A

how inorganic matter (molecules and energy) turned into/formed organic matter (life)

50
Q

biological evolution

A

“decent w/ modification”: change in a populations’ genetic make-up through successive generations
- takes time; not an individual basis (population)
- evidence from fossil fuels and DNA
- small scale and large scale

51
Q

where did N, O, H, C come from at the beginning of earth?

A

exploding stars created dust (molecules)

52
Q

Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)

A
  • founder of taxonomy and binomial nomenclature
  • grouped according to similarities
  • ASSIGNS: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
53
Q

taxonomy / binomial nomenclature:

A

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
- founder: Carolus Linnaeus

54
Q

Comte de Buffon (1707-1788)

A
  • “natural history”
  • biogeographer
  • changes in nature; organisms adapt
55
Q

Catastrophism

A

periodic catastrophic events destroy most species in local extinctions, repopulated by migration or new creations

56
Q

paleontology

A

the branch of science concerned with fossil animals and plants
Georges Cuvier (1769-1832):
- The father of paleontology
- First to suggest extinction

57
Q

geology

A

the science that deals with the earth’s physical structure and substance, its history, and the processes that act on it; earth = old
- James Hutton
- Charles Lyell

58
Q

Lamarck’s theory of evolution, 1809

A

Life evolved along w/ evolution of earth (gradual)
- tendancy toward greater complexity and more “perfect” adaptations.
- teleological evolution (evolution with a predetermined purpose!)

59
Q

Biological evolution

A

biological evolution involving descent through genetic inheritance
- all life has common ancestors

60
Q

clade = monophyletic group =

A

group with 1 common ancestor

61
Q

True/False: humans evolved from chimpanzees

A

FALSE
- Humans and chimpanzees share recent common ancestor that was neither chimpanzee nor human

62
Q

Voyage of the HMS Beagle 1831-1836

A
  • the origin of species
  • Galapagos: diff islands had diff species w/ same ecological niche
63
Q

Charles Darwin:

A

Proposed that species can change (evolve) over time, via natural selection.
- 1859: published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection

64
Q

Natural selection (Darwin definition)

A

Individuals within a population are phenotypically variable- and those differences can influence how well they acquire resources, (food, shelter, mates, etc.) and therefore can affect their reproductive success.

65
Q

A.R. Wallace also developed ____

A

a theory of natural selection at the same time, collaborated with Darwin

66
Q

mechanisms of evolution in natural selection (3):

A
  1. lots of variation in heritable traits = required
  2. populations overproduce offspring
  3. survival of the fittest offspring
67
Q

fossil theory

A

fossil species do not look like current species –> must be diff –> evolution
- history of extinctions: 5 previous, 1 current

68
Q

evidence for evolution (11)

A
  1. fossil theory / extinctions
  2. homologies
  3. anatomy
  4. comparative anatomy
  5. developmental biology
  6. cellular/molecular evidence
  7. Distribution in Time and Space
  8. Geographical Evidence
  9. Evidence by Example
  10. Ecology
  11. Experiments
69
Q

history of extinctions

A
  • 5 previous
  • current 1
70
Q

homologies

A

Similar characteristics due to relatedness

71
Q

analogous

A

same function, different structure
- ex: wing of bird vs wing of bee

72
Q

homologous

A

same function, same structure
- ex: wing of bird vs wing of bat

73
Q

Developmental homologies

A

structures arise from the same embryonic structures and are morphologically similar

74
Q

Chronology:
- Relative dating:
- Numerical dating:

A
  • Relative dating- fossils in temporal sequence based on position in rocks
  • Numerical dating- relies on decay of radioactive elements (uranium, potassium, rubidium, carbon)
75
Q

____ links all life on earth to common ancestor

A

DNA

76
Q

Geographical Evidence

A

Distribution of living things; evolution and mvmt of continental plates

77
Q

artificial selection

A

evolutionary process in which humans consciously select for or against particular features in organisms

78
Q

mechanisms of change:

A
  1. Mutation
  2. migration (gene flow)
  3. genetic drift
  4. natural selection
79
Q

coevolution

A

How different species can affect each other’s evolution
- 2 species evolve together
- ex: mites and parasites evolve w/ their host
- ex: dogs and humans

80
Q

3 requirements for natural selection (“formula” for natural selection)

A
  1. variation
  2. differential reproduction
  3. heredity
81
Q

NEW genes only arise from a ___

A

mutation

82
Q

new combinations of genes can arise from ___ in sexual reproduction

A

sexual crossover

83
Q

sexual selection

A

animals choose their mates for a reason (whatever it may be) and that will be passed on to offspring

84
Q

3 modes of selection

A
  1. directional selection
  2. diversifying selection
  3. stabilizing selection
85
Q

sexual dimorphism

A

distinct difference in size/appearance b/w the sexes of an animal (and difference between sexual organs)

86
Q

male peacock feathers are there for what reason?

A

intimidate predators, impress mates (with color/patterns and dances with feathers)

87
Q

male competition

A

compete for females (time for mating), compete for food/resources

88
Q

female choice

A

which males to mate with, for how long, which male will fertilize her eggs

89
Q

intrAsexual selection

A

competition for mates (ex: males fighting/competing for females)

90
Q

intErsexual selection

A

mate choice

91
Q

runaway selection

A

middle ground for trait is best: less or more decreases fitness
- ex: ideal bird tail length is midlength
- short or long tail decreases fitness

92
Q

handicap principle

A

females prefer males with handicaps because they have survived with their handicap so they are very fit

93
Q

good genes hypothesis

A

you can see the good genes (phenotype)

94
Q

what creates variation?

A

mutation and sexual reproduction
- NOT evolution

95
Q

Species

A

group that interbreeds in nature

96
Q

ring species

A

counterexample to speciation based solely on interbreeding

97
Q

chronospecies

A

different stages in the same evolving lineage that existed at different points in time in the fossil record

98
Q

Speciation

A

evolution of new species; lineage-splitting event that produces 2+ separate species
- Causes: geographical isolation, pre-zygotic (before egg is fertilized), post-zygotic (after egg is fertilized), food isolation

99
Q

a clade is a…

A

sister group

100
Q

causes for speciation

A

geographical isolation, reduction in gene flow, reproductive isolation

101
Q

peripatric speciation

A

small population isolated at edge of larger population (special kind of allopatric)

102
Q

parapatric speciation

A

continuously distributed population (special kind of sympatric)

103
Q

3 requirements for evolution

A
  1. variation
  2. isolation (geographic or sexual)
  3. time
104
Q

evolution

A

any change in heritable (physical) traits, anatomy or behaviors within a population across generations
- Gene distribution changes over time

105
Q

Descent w/ modification

A

parents have children that behave similarly and differently
- Creates new traits

106
Q

Common descent

A

everything came from 1 original species

107
Q

whales evolved from…

A

the same origin of bisons and pigs
- they had legs!

108
Q

homologous structures

A

organisms share finely detailed structures
- bc of common descent almost all vertebrates have similar bone structure

109
Q

Pre-zygotic barriers for speciation (3):

A

Mechanical, Temporal, behavioral

110
Q

Mechanical barriers for speciation

A

don’t have lock-and-key fit for sex

111
Q

Temporal barriers for speciation

A

breed at diff times

112
Q

behavioral barriers for speciation

A

how they attract mates

113
Q

post-zygotic barriers for speciation (2):

A
  1. zygote mortality- fertilized, but zygote immediately dies
  2. hybrid sterility- horses and donkeys can create mules; mules can’t reproduce at all (sterile offspring)
114
Q

speciation causes:

A
  • geographical isolation
  • pre-zygotic (before egg is fertilized)
  • post-zygotic (after egg is fertilized)
  • food isolation
115
Q

Peripatric speciation

A

evolution of new species when small group breaks off from larger group and forms new species bc of physical barrriers
- one group is much smaller than the other
- founder and bottleneck effect

116
Q

Parapatric speciation

A

evolution of new species due to large area and organisms only mate with nearby organisms; slight differences in habitats effect speciation

117
Q

Gradual evolution

A

thousands –> millions of years for speciation

118
Q

Fast evolution

A

mutations and breeding produce immediately different offspring

119
Q

4 modes of speciation

A

allopatric speciation, sympatric speciation, peripatetic speciation, parapatric speciation

120
Q

plants can use ___ for speciation (easily) that animals can’t use

A

hybridization
-form of sympatric speciation

121
Q

2 modes of speciation common in plants

A

hybridization, polyploidy

122
Q

genetic equilibrium (and it’s 5 conditions)

A
  • Allele frequencies at a locus are not changing
    – Population is not evolving
    – Five Conditions:
  • No mutation
  • Random mating
  • Gene doesn’t affect survival or reproduction
  • Large population
  • No immigration/emigration

Ecology (33 decks)

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