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Bio > C2: Eukaryotic Cells > Flashcards

C2: Eukaryotic Cells Flashcards

Class 2

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1
Q

what is the function of the nucleus?

A

holds the genome, transcription takes place here

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2
Q

what is the function of the nuclear envelope?

A

it is inside the nucleus, separates its contents into distinct compartments

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3
Q

what is the function of the nucleolus?

A

a ribosome factory

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4
Q

what is the function of the mitochondria?

A

produces ATP via cell respiration, contains mitochondrial DNA

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5
Q

what is the function of the chloroplast ?

A

photosynthesis, contains chloroplastic DNA

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6
Q

what is the function of the ribosomes?

A

translation

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7
Q

what is the function of the centrosome?
- what is it made up of?

A

anchors the mitotic spindle
- 2 centrioles and some proteins

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8
Q

what is the function of the cytoskeleton?
- what 3 things is it composed of?

A

structural support of the cell, transport around the inside of the cell, movement of the cell
- microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments

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9
Q

what is a microtubule composed of?
- what is a microtubule organizing center?
- what does the MTOC contain?

A

2 globular proteins, alpla tubulin and beta tubulin which form an alpha beta tubulin dimer which allows the microtubule to elongate
- the end of the microtubule that does NOT elongate
- a pair of centrioles

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10
Q

what is a microfilament composed of?
- what are they responsible for?

A

rods formed in the cytoplasm from the polymerization of the globular protein actin
- amoeboid movement: changes in the cytoplasmic structure that cause the rest of the cell to flow in one direction

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11
Q

what is the function of cilia and flagella?
- how are they arranged?
- how are they anchored to the plasma membrane?

A

move fluids past the cell surface
- 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules, each one bound to its neighbor by dynein
- basal body

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12
Q

what is the only flagellated cell in eukaryotes?

A

sperm cells

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13
Q

what is the function of intermediate filaments?

A

provide strong cell structure

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14
Q

what is the function of the rough ER?

A

translation of proteins in secretory pathway

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15
Q

what is the function of the smooth ER?

A

steroid biosynthesis, calcium storage, detoxification and glycogen breakdown

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16
Q

what are the 3 functions of the golgi body/ apparatus?

A
  1. modification and sorting of proteins made in the RER
  2. sorting/ sending proteins to their correct destination
  3. synthesizing certain macromolecules
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17
Q

what is a constitutive secretory pathway?

A

when proteins are sent in vesicles from the Golgi immediately to the cell surface

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18
Q

what is a regulated secretory pathway?
- where is this pathway present?

A

when specialized secretory cells store secretory proteins in secretory vesicles and release them only at certain times, usually in response to a change from the extracellular environment
- Golgi apparatus

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19
Q

what is the function of lysosomes?

A

degradation, contains acid hydrolases that digest various substances and stores hydrolytic enzymes

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20
Q

what is autophagy?
- phagocytosis?
- crinophagy?
- in what cell structure do these processes occur?

A

self-eating
- cell eating
- digestion of unneeded secretory products
- lysosome

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21
Q

what are the enzymes responsible for degradation in lysosomes?

A

acid hydrolases

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22
Q

what is the function of peroxisomes?

A

degradation (lipids) and detox, contains catalase

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23
Q

what is the function of the vacuole?

A

sacs of water with organic or inorganic solutes, storage (especially water), help isolate harmful substances

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24
Q

what is the largest organelle found in plant cells and what is its function?

A

central vacuole, used for water storage

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25
Q

all membranes of the cell are composed of ….

A

lipid bilayer membranes

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26
Q

what are the 3 most common lipids in eukaryotic membranes?
- of these 3 which are the most abundant?

A

phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol
- phospholipids

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27
Q

plasma membranes are composed of…

A

phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol, proteins, carbohydrates

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28
Q

what are cell surface receptors?
- where are they synthesized?

A

bind extracellular signaling molecules such as hormones and relay these signals into the cell so it can respond accordingly
- in the rough ER

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29
Q

what are intracellular enzymes and where are they synthesized?

A

proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm

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30
Q

what is a ligand?

A

the molecule that serves as a key for a given cell surface receptor

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31
Q

what is signal transduction?

A

the signal that is triggered by the binding of a ligand to its receptor on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane

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32
Q

what are the 3 types of signal transduction cell surface receptors?

A
  1. ligand gated ion channels
  2. catalytic receptors
  3. g protein linked receptors
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33
Q

in cell surface receptors,
what is the function of a ligand gated ion channel?

A

opens an ion channel upon binding a particular neurotransmitter

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34
Q

in cell surface receptors,
what is the function of a catalytic receptor?
- what enzyme helps with this?

A

have an enzymatic site that is initiated by ligand binding at the extracellular surface
- kinase

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35
Q

in cell surface receptors,
what is the function of a g protein linked receptor?

A

does not directly transduce its signal, transmits it into the cell with the help of a second messenger

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36
Q

what are the 2 types of g protein linked receptors?

A
  • Gs: stimulatory
  • Gi: inhibitory
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37
Q

what is the most important second messenger?
- what hormones does it serve?
- what do these hormones cause?

A

cyclic AMP (cAMP)
- epinephrine and glucagon
- energy mobilization

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38
Q

what are channel proteins?

A

selectively allow ions or molecules to cross the membrane

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39
Q

what are integral membrane proteins?
- peripheral membrane proteins?

A

proteins actually embedded in the membrane, held there by hydrophobic interactions
- not embedded in the membrane, stuck to integral membrane proteins, held there by hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions

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40
Q

what is the fluid mosaic model?

A

says that the membrane is seen as a mosaic of lipids and proteins that are free to move back and forth fluidly

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41
Q

the membrane is said to have ….

A

polarity

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42
Q

a solute will always diffuse ____ its concentration gradient, which means from ____ to ____ concentration

A

down; high; low

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43
Q

what is osmosis?

A

a special type of diffusion in which solvent diffuses rather than solute

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44
Q

in diffusion, ____ moves towards equilibrium and the membrane is permeable to ____. in osmosis, ____ moves towards equilibrium and the membrane is permeable to ____

A

solute; both solvent and solute; solvent; solvent but impermeable to solute

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45
Q

within osmosis,
what does isotonic mean?

A

the solute concentration is the same inside and outside

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46
Q

within osmosis,
what does hypertonic mean?

A

a solution that has more total dissolved solutes than a cell

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47
Q

within osmosis,
what does hypotonic mean?

A

a solution that has less solute on the outside of the cell compared to the inside of the cell

48
Q

what is osmotic pressure?

A

the tendency of water to move down its concentration gradient and possibly cause the cell to explode

49
Q

how do molecules travel via passive transport?
- does this form of transport require energy?

A
  • down concentration gradient
  • no
50
Q

what are the 2 types of passive transport?

A

facilitated diffusion and simple diffusion

51
Q

how do molecules travel via facilitated diffusion?
what are 2 examples?

A

solute goes through a protein
- water and glucose since they are hydrophillic

52
Q

how do molecules travel via simple diffusion?
what is an example?

A

solute goes through without a protein
- small hydrophobic molecules (steroids, cholesterol, fatty acids)

53
Q

what are the 2 types of facilitated diffusion?

A

channels and carriers/ports

54
Q

within a membrane,
what is a pore?

A

a tube through the membrane that is so large it is not selective for any particular molecule, any molecule may pass

55
Q

how do molecules travel via channels?

A

narrow opening, surrounded by protein

56
Q

how do molecules travel via carriers/ports?

A

solute binds one side and comes out other side

57
Q

what are the 3 types of channels?

A

unregulated, ligand- gated, voltage- gated

58
Q

what is an unregulated channel?

A

open all the time, leak channels, aquaphorins

59
Q

what is a ligand- gated channel?

A

open in response to ligand binding

60
Q

what is a voltage-gated channel?

A

open in response to changes in plasma membrane potential

61
Q

what are the 3 types of carriers/ports?
- what does each one mean?

A

uniport, symport, antiport
- uniport: 1 thing being transported
- symport: 2 things being transported in the same direction
- antiport: 2 things being transported in opposite directions

62
Q

how do molecules travel via active transport?
- does this form of transport require energy?

A

up a concentration or electrochemical gradient
- yes

63
Q

what are the 2 types of active transport?

A

primary and secondary

64
Q

what is primary active transport?
- what is an example?

A

ATP is used directly
- sodium potassium pump

65
Q

what is secondary active transport?
- what is an example?

A

ATP is used to make a gradient, transport is coupled to this gradient
- Na+ glucose symporter

66
Q

what is the Na+/K+ ATPase?
- what does it do?

A

a transmembrane protein in the plasma membrane of all cells in the body
- pumps 3 Na+ out of the cell, 2 K+ into the cell, and hydrolyzes 1 ATP to drive the pumping of these ions against their gradients

67
Q

in a sodium potassium pump,
what is a potassium leak channel?

A

when potassium ions that are pumped into the cell are able to leak back out

68
Q

in a sodium potassium pump,
what is the resting membrane potential?

A

as potassium leaves the cell through the leak channels, the movement of positive charge out of the cell creates an electric potential across the plasma membrane with a net negative charge on the interior of the cell

69
Q

what is exocytosis?

A

a process to transport material out of the cell

70
Q

what is endocytosis?

A

materials are taken in by the cell

71
Q

what do macrophages do?

A

engulf large particles in phagocytosis

72
Q

what is pinocytosis?

A

cell drinking

73
Q

what is receptor- mediated endocytosis?
- what is an important example?

A

the site is marked by pits coated with clathrin (inside the cell) and receptors that bind to a specific molecule (outside the cell)
- the uptake of cholesterol from the blood

74
Q

what is a centromere?

A

what chromosomes have near the middle to ensure that newly replicated chromosomes are sorted properly during cell division, one copy to each daughter cell

75
Q

what is a telomere?

A

with the help of telomerase (a DNA polymerase), maintain the ends of the linear chromosomes during DNA replication

76
Q

what are the 5 phases of the cell cycle?

A

G1, G0, S, G2, mitosis

77
Q

describe the G1 phase of the cell cycle?

A

cell growth, metabolism, make organelles

78
Q

describe the G0 phase of the cell cycle?

A

not all cells go through this phase, the cells are still alive but exit the cell cycle and are non-dividing

79
Q

describe the S phase of the cell cycle?

A

synthesis of the genome, DNA replication

80
Q

describe the G2 phase of the cell cycle?

A

similar to G1, prep for mitosis

81
Q

describe the mitosis phase of the cell cycle?
- what are the las 2 stages of mitosis called?

A

PMAT: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
- cytokinesis

82
Q

in mitosis,
what happens during prophase?

A

chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope degrades, mitotic spindle appears, centrosomes move to the ends of the cells

83
Q

in mitosis,
what happens during metaphase?

A

chromosomes line up on metaphase plate, spindle fibers attach to centromeres of chromosomes

84
Q

in mitosis,
what happens during anaphase?

A

homologous chromosomes separate, sister chromatids move to opposite ends of the cell, number of chromosomes double because you go from X shaped chromosomes to linear ones

85
Q

in mitosis,
what happens during telophase?
- what specific feature is present within this phase?

A

opposite of prophase, cytokinesis, ends with 2 cells and each is diploid but the chromosomes are linear
- cleavage furrow made of microfilaments that pinches the cell into 2

86
Q

what are oncogenes?

A

mutated genes that induce cancer

87
Q

what do homologous chromosomes have in common?
- different?
- where do they come from?
- where are they located within the cell cycle?

A

same length and genes
- different sequence and alleles
- 2 chromosomes, 1 from mom 1 from dad
- G1 phase

88
Q

what are sister chromatids?
- where are they located within the cell cycle?
- where do these chromosomes come from?

A

they are completely identical since they are the product of DNA replication. same length, genes, sequence, alleles
- G2 phase
- 2 chromosomes, 1 from mom 1 from dad BUT have double the amount of DNA since DNA replication has already been completed

89
Q

what is the role of microtubules during a cell cycle?

A

pull apart the sister chromatids during anaphase

90
Q

a chromosome is made up of 2 ____

A

sister chromatids

91
Q

within chromosome structure, what is a telomere?

A

the end of a chromosome, helps with stability and cell aging/ lifespan. are consumed and shorten during each cell division

92
Q

when telomeres become too short and reach a length where a chromosome can no longer replicate, they can do 1 of 3 things….

A
  1. activate DNA repair pathways
  2. enter a senescent state (where they are alive but not dividing)
  3. activate apoptosis
93
Q

what is the hayflick limit?

A

the # of times a normal human cell type can divide until telomere length stops cell division

94
Q

many age related diseases are linked to ____

A

telomere shortening

95
Q

within chromosome structure, what is a mitotic spindle fibre?

A

made of microtubules, connected to the centromere

96
Q

within chromosome structure, what is a kinetochore?

A

complex of proteins, associated w centromere, attach to spindle fibres

97
Q

cells stained for kinetochore proteins have ____ visible punctae at the beginning of ____and 92 at the end of ____

A

46; anaphase; anaphase

98
Q

there are ____ kinetochores per tetrad and ____ kinetochores in each cell at the end of ____

A

4; 23; telophase II

99
Q

within chromosome structure, what is a centromere?

A

part of chromosome where sister chromatids are connected, divides into chromosome arms

100
Q

what are the little arm and long arm called within a chromosome (respectively)?

A

p and q

101
Q

eukaryotic DNA is ____ around ____ proteins and packaged into ____

A

wrapped; histone; chromatin

102
Q

what are introns?

A

regions of eukaryotic DNA that are transcribed into RNA but ultimately spliced out during mRNA processing and thus never translated into a protein

103
Q

what are exons?

A

the regions between the introns that are translated and therefore have also been transcribed

104
Q

how many different human chromosomes are there?
- humans and most animals are ____, they have ____ copies of each chromosome (except ____ chromosomes which are ____ and ____)

A

46 (23*2); diploid; 2; sex; X; Y

105
Q

what is the endosymbiotic theory?

A

mitochondria originated as independent unicellular organisms living within larger cells

106
Q

mitochondria exhibit ____ inheritance, which means ….

A

maternal; mitochondria are inherited only from the mother

107
Q

what are the 2 sites of protein synthesis in a eukaryotic cell?

A

ribosomes free in the cytoplasm or ribosomes bound to the rough ER

108
Q

proteins that are synthesized in the rough ER will end up in 1 of 3 ways ….

A
  1. secreted into extracellular environment
  2. as integral plasma mem. proteins
  3. in the membrane or interior of the ER, golgi apparatus or lysosomes
109
Q

how do epithelial cells prevent things from moving freely within the body?

A

tight junctions

110
Q

what do desmosomes do?

A

make sure epithelial cells in the skin are held together tightly but do not form a complete seal

111
Q

what do gap junctions do?
- what type of cells contain these?

A

allow ions to flow back and forth in specialized cell types
- heart muscle cells

112
Q

what is the eukaryotic cell wall made up of?

A

cellulose or chitin

113
Q

both prokaryotes and eukaryotes translate proteins in the ____

A

cytosol

114
Q

____ is located in the cytoplasm and therefore has no ____ sequence or ____ domains

A

hexokinase; signal; transmembrane

115
Q

all living things are composed of ____

A

organic molecules

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