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🍃Biology Paper 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Bio: what is selective breeding

A

2 animals with desired characteristics are selected and breaded. Repeat over generations.

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2
Q

bio: name reasons that organisms need energy

A
  • homeostasis
  • muscle contraction
  • growth
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3
Q

Bio: what tissue differentiates in plants

A

Meristem cells

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4
Q

Bio: what is a gene

A

It is a short segment of DnA that encodes for one protein

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5
Q

Bio: what do 3 base pairs encode for

A

One amino acid

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6
Q

Bio: what is a phenotype

A

The observable characteristics of an organism due to its genotype

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7
Q

Bio: what is a genotype

A

The combination of alleles that a person has for a particular trait (AA, Gg, cc)

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8
Q

Bio: what is polydactyl
Is it dominant or recessive?

A

More fingers or toes, dominant (PP, Pp)

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9
Q

Bio: what is cystic fibrosis, dominant or recessive?

A

It’s inherited disorder of cell membranes that mainly affects the lungs and digestive system they can become clogged with lots of thick, sticky mucus as too much is produced, recessive (ff)

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10
Q

Bio what are the sex chromosomes for a male

A

XY

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11
Q

Bio: what are the chromosomes for a female

A

XX

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12
Q

Bio: what is meristem

A

Meristems are regions of unspecialised cells in plants that are capable of cell division

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13
Q

Bio: what are the villi

A

finger-like projections that increase the surface area over which molecules are defused into the blood through the small intestine or the uterus

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14
Q

Bio: what is cvs

A

Chronic villus sampling:
- taking a sample of placental tissue
- genetic screening
- 2%

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15
Q

Bio: what types of screening are used during in pregnancy

A
  • family history
  • pre-screening-12m week nuchal fold thickness, this can indicate the presence of Down’s syndrome
  • afp blood test
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16
Q

bio: what is a chlorophyll deffeciency

A

chlorosis

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17
Q

bio: what stage of mitosis is happening here

A

prophase

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18
Q

bio: what stage of mitosis is happening here

A

Metaphase

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19
Q

bio: what stage of mitosis is happening here

A

Anaphase

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20
Q

bio: what stage of mitosis is happening here

A

Telophase

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21
Q

bio: what stage of mitosis is happening here

A

cytokinesis

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22
Q

Bio: what are the properties of meiosis

A
  • 4 cells are produced
  • non-identical cells are produced
  • DNA is replicated once
  • cells have 23 chromosomes so gametes are produced
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23
Q

Bio: what are the properties of mitosis

A
  • creates 2 identical cells
  • DNA is replicated once
  • there are the full 46 chromosomes in each cell
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24
Q

Bio: what is a diploid cell

A

A cell with the full amount of chromosomes is humans 23 pairs so 46 chromasones

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25
Q

Bio: what are gametes

A

They are sex cells, sperm and egg

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26
Q

Bio: what is the name for the enzyme that removes a gene used in genetic engineering

A

Restrictive enzyme

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27
Q

Bio: what enzyme is used to join 2 ends of DNA in genetic engineering

A

Ligaze

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28
Q

Bio: what is a trophic level

A

It is a level of consumers

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29
Q

Bio: where does the energy in a food chain come from

A

The sun

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30
Q

Bio: what is a hormone

A
  • It is chemical released by a gland that is carried through the blood to a target organ and effect a responce
  • A chemical messenger
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31
Q

Bio: where are hormones produced

A

Endocrine glands

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32
Q

Bio: where is insulin produced

A

Pancreas

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33
Q

Bio: biogas generators

A

They are an industrial device that completes anaerobic decomposition to produce methane that is in biogas

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34
Q

Bio: what organisms are decomposers

A
  • insects
  • fungi
  • bacteria
  • larvae
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35
Q

Bio: what does decomposition do

A

It returns nutrients to the environment and turns large organic compounds into simple molecules

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36
Q

Bio: how to bacteria and fungi digest

A

They excrete digestive enzymes onto the organic matter and then absorb the nutrients.

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37
Q

Bio: how do fungi and bacteria digest organic matter

A

They excrete enzymes onto the matter and then absorb the nutrients (Saprophytic)

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38
Q

Bio: what is a Saprophytic organisim

A

It is an organism that excretes enzymes onto its food and then absorbs the nutrients.

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39
Q

Bio: what are the 3 factors that effect the rate of decomposition

A
  • temperature
  • water concentration
  • oxygen concentration
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40
Q

Bio: what is anaerobic decay and what does it produce

A

This occurs when there is not enough oxygen present during decay and produces biogas which is mostly composed of methane, a good fuel

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41
Q

Chem: what is biogas mostly composed of

A

Methane, a good fuel

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42
Q

Bio: what is the carbon cycle

A
  • producers remove CO2 from the atmosphere by photosyntheses
  • animals eat theses plants and absorb carbon compounds
  • animals perform respiration which releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
  • animals die and decomposers release carbon compounds into the atmosphere
  • also carbon can be released by the combustion of fossil fuels.
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43
Q

Bio: why does too much water hinder the rate of decay

A

Oxygen cannot get to the Side of decomoposition

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44
Q

Bio: rate of change equation for rate RP

A

Rate of change = change in indicator / time

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45
Q

Bio: what is the amount of biomass transferred between trophic levels

A

5-10%

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46
Q

Bio: what is homeostasis

A

It is the regulation of internal conditions at optimum levels in response to external changes

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47
Q

Bio: what is it called when the blood vessels widen

A

Vasodialation

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48
Q

Bio: what is it called when the blood vessels tighten

A

vasoconstriction

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49
Q

Bio: what is a control system

A

Automatic responses they use nervous and chemical responses, they consist of receptors, control centeres and effectors

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50
Q

Bio: what does a receptor do

A

It detects changes in internal or external environments

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51
Q

Bio: what do control centres do

A

They are areas that receive and process info from receptors and coordinate body response

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52
Q

Bio: what do effectors do

A

They affect a responce

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53
Q

Bio: through what are signals sent to and from the brain

A

Neurones

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54
Q

Bio: what are the 2 main parts of the nervous system

A
  • brain - coordinates the response of the effectors
  • spinal cord - the control centre for reflex response, important to coordinating the response of the effectors to environmental changes, reflex responce
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55
Q

Bio: what is a reflex

A

An involuntary action the is automatic, a rapid response to a stimulus

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56
Q

Bio: what does ADH stand for

A

Anti Diuretic hormone

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57
Q

Bio: what does the pupil reflex do

A

It is the dilation of the pupil

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58
Q

Bio: what are the receptors that detect changes in temperature

A

thermoreceptors

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59
Q

Bio: what is the knee jerk reaction

A

sudden kicking movement of the lower leg in response to a sharp tap on the patellar tendon, which lies just below the kneecap

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60
Q

Bio: what are 2 respiratory reflexes

A

Coughing
Sneezing

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61
Q

Bio: what control centre do reflexes not include

A

The brain

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62
Q

Bio: where do synapses occur

A

At each junction of a reflex ark

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63
Q

Bio: what are synapses

A

They are gaps between the neurones

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64
Q

Bio: what is a reflex ark

A

Stimulus
- receptor
- sensory neurone
- relay neurone (coordiantor)
- motor neurone
- effector
Responce

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65
Q

Bio: what are the chemicals that carry signals across the gap between the neurones

A

Neurotransmitters

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66
Q

Bio: how do the synapses work

A

Neurotransmitters move down the concentration gradient toward the other receptor and bind to it, this then repeats the signal

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67
Q

Bio: what is tropisim

A

Response of a plant to a stumulus

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68
Q

Bio: what is geotropism

A

It is the response of a plant to gravity/orientation

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69
Q

Bio: what is positive gertropisim

A

It is the movement of a part of a plant toward the centre of gravity (roots)

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70
Q

Bio: what is negative gertropisim

A

It is the movement of a part of a plant away from the centre of gravity (shoots)

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71
Q

Bio: what does auxin do in roots

A

It inhibits growth, drives them down

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72
Q

Bio: what does auxin do in shoots

A

It promotes growth

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73
Q

bio: what type of cells only have one copy of each chromosome

A

haploid cells

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74
Q

bio: what is known as a permanent change to the sequence of nucleotides

A

a mutation

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75
Q

Bio: in what does auxin cause positive geotropisim

A

Roots

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76
Q

Bio: what is phototropisim

A

It is the response to the stimulus of light

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77
Q

Bio: what is geotropisim

A

It is the response to the stimulus of gravity

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78
Q

Bio: in what does auxin cause negative geotropisim

A

Shoots

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79
Q

Bio: how does auxin cause plants to grow towards light

A

Light breaks down auxin, auxin encourages growth and so the plant grows toward the light

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80
Q

Bio: what is myopia

A

It is short sightedness

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81
Q

Bio: what is hyperopia

A

It is long sightedness

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82
Q

Bio: what is astigmatisim

A

It is an asymmetry in the cornea/lens

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83
Q

Bio: what is the cornea

A

Refracts light - bends it as it enters the eye

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84
Q

Bio: what is the iris

A

It controls how much light enters the pupil

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85
Q

Bio: what does the lens do

A

Further refracts light

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86
Q

Bio: what is the retina

A

Contains the light receptors

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87
Q

Bio: what is the optic nerve

A

Carries impulses between the eye and the brain

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88
Q

Bio: what is the sclera

A

Tough white outer layer of the eye, helps protect eye from injury

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89
Q

Bio: what are the 2 homeostatic prosesses in the eye

A
  • accommodation - focusing ciliary muscle relaxes
  • light intensity - greater the intensity smaller the apature
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90
Q

Bio: what is accomodation in the eye

A

Accommodation - homeostasis of the eye - focusing - far away, ciliary muscle relaxes

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91
Q

Bio: what is light intensity homeostasis in the eye

A

Light intensity, greater the intensity smaller the apature

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92
Q

Bio: what does the cerebrum do

A

Higher thinking

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93
Q

Bio: what does the cerebellum

A

Balance and control

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94
Q

Bio: what does the hypothalamus do

A

It controls:
- body temp
- hunger
- mood
- sex drive
- blood pressure
- sleep
- thirst

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95
Q

Bio: what does the medulla oblongada do

A

It controls:
- heartbeat
- breathing
- blood pressure

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96
Q

Bio: what does the pituatary gland do

A

It regulates growth and metabolisim

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97
Q

Bio: what affect does light have on the roots

A

Auxin builds up facing down, light source is up, auxin breaks down in present of light, auxins in roots inhibit growth and so the part facing the light grows more moving the plant away from the light

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98
Q

Bio: what are the 3 main uses of auxin

A
  • plant clones - tissue culture
  • rooting - taking cuttings of a plant and use rooting compound (contains auxin) to stimulate root growth in cutting)
  • weedkiller - too much auxin can ruing a plants growth cycles killing it
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99
Q

Bio: what does ethene do in plants

A

Controls cell division during growth

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100
Q

Bio: what can ethene be used for in plants

A

It can be used to ripen plants for sale after transport

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101
Q

Bio: what does gibberelin do

A

Controls growth and development

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102
Q

Bio: what are the uses of gibberelin

A
  • controlling dormancy - inducing germination
  • inducing flowering
  • growing larger fruits
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103
Q

Bio: what part of the plant produces auxins

A

The tip

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104
Q

Bio: what does dna encode for

A

Protiens

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105
Q

Bio: what is a nucleotide of dna

A

It is one sugar one phosphate and a bace

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106
Q

Bio: what is the sugar phosphate backbone

A
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107
Q

Bio: what is mRNA

A

It is messenger RNA

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108
Q

Bio: what is tRNA

A

It is transfer RNA

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109
Q

Bio: what is tRNA specific to

A

It is specific to one codon

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110
Q

Bio: what is a codon

A

It is a specific combination of 3 baces

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111
Q

Bio: what is it that goes along the DNA and copies it

A

It is RNA polymerase

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112
Q

Bio: explain the process of protein synthesis

A
  • RNA Polymerase (an enzyme) goes along the DNA and copies it creating mRNA
  • the mRNA leaves the nucleus and is bonded to by a ribosome
  • mRNA is fed through the ribosomes and each codon of 3 baces pairs is read by an anticodon (with tRNA at the end)
  • by this the next amino acid “added” to the growing chain which then becomes a protein
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113
Q

Bio: what is variation in terns of inheritance and responce

A

It is the difference between individuals

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114
Q

Bio: what are the 2 types of twins in humans

A
  • dizygotic - like 2 separate pregnancies
  • monozygotic - identical
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115
Q

Bio: what type of pregnancy makes identical (monozygotic) twins more common

A

Artificial insemination

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116
Q

Bio: what are the male plant gametes

A

They are pollen

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117
Q

Bio: what are the female plant gametes

A

Egg cells

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118
Q

Bio: what are the stages for genetic engineering

enzymes

A
  1. Enzymes isolate the required gene and then it is inserted into a vector (such as bacterial plasmid or virus)
  2. Vector transports gene to required cell
  3. Genes are transferred at the early stages of development to ensure that the organism develops with the wanted characteristics
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119
Q

Bio: what are 4 abiotic factors that could affect the population of a species

A
  • water
  • oxygen / air
  • temperature
  • minerals
  • pH
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120
Q

Bio: what are 4 biotic factors that could affect the population of a species

A
  • food
  • predators
  • disease
  • one species outcompeting another so the numbers are no longer sufficient to breed
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121
Q

Bio: how many times is the DnA replicated in meiosis

A

1

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122
Q

Bio: how many times is the DnA replicated in mitosis

A

1

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123
Q

Bio: how do identical twins occurs

A

1 egg is fertilised and early on in its division it splits into 2 eggs

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124
Q

Bio: how do non-identical (fraternal) twins occur

A

2 eggs 2 sperm

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125
Q

Bio: how was the first sheep cloned

A
  1. They egg 1 taken from ewe one, nucleus is taken out
  2. A nucleus from ewe 2 is taken from the cells and added to the egg, it begins to divide
  3. The embryo is put in the uterus of ewe 3
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126
Q

Bio: what type of organisms do binary fission and what what type of cells are produced

A

Procaryotes, clones

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127
Q

Bio: in cloning is the egg cell fertilised or not

A

Not

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128
Q

Bio: what are plant stem cells

property

A

They are pluripotent, they can divide to become any type of cell

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129
Q

Bio: what is deamination

A

It is the breakdown of proteins and the creation of amino acids, its process is this:
1. protein
2. amino acid
3. ammonia
4. urea

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130
Q

Bio: where is the site of deamination

A

It is in the liver

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131
Q

Bio: how did Charles Darwin prove tropisim

A
  • he took some plants, removed the tips, and covered them with an opaque cap, a cylinder
  • he found that the tip grew straight up, when the tip was covered by a transparent cap, it moved towards the light
  • he also covered the site of curvature and found that it went towards the light
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132
Q

Bio: what type of lens can be used to correct myopia

A

A concave lens

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133
Q

Bio: what type of lens can be used to correct hyperopia

A

A convex lens

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134
Q

Bio: what is the homeostatic reaction to the cold

A
  • shivering - movement, muscles release more though respiration energy and so heat
  • vasoconstriction - reduced blood flow to the extremities such as the arms
  • goosebumps - raises hairs and traps air near the skin
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135
Q

Bio: what is the negative feedback loop of blood glucose control

A
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136
Q

bio: what is the endocrine system

A

it is the hormonal system, it uses chemical messengers (hormones) instead of nerves

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137
Q

bio: what does thyroxin control

A

basal (resting) metabolic rate

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138
Q

bio: how does thyroxin operate

A
  • when the concentration of thyroid hormones (such as thyroxin) is low TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) is released by the hypothalamus that stimulates the production of thyroxin
  • when the conc of thyroid hormones is high, TSH production decreases
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139
Q

bio: what releases thyroxin

A

the thyroid gland

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140
Q

bio: what does thyroxin do in young animals

A

it regulates growth and brain development

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141
Q

bio: where is adrenaline released

A

the adrenal gland

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142
Q

bio: what does adrenaline control and what does it stimulate these things to do

A
  • heart rate - it increases this
  • lungs - it enlarges the air passages in the lungs and alters the metabolism to boost delivery of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles
  • fight or flight - adrenaline prepares the body to more and think quickly
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143
Q

bio: what effect does adrenaline have on the lungs

A
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144
Q

Bio: where is the relay neurone located

A

In the spinal cord

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145
Q

Bio: why is the relay neurone important

A

It cuts out the brain, increasing speed

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146
Q

Bio: what does adrenaline do to the pupils

A

It dilates them

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147
Q

Bio: what does adrenaline do to the heart rate and blood pressure

A

It increases blood pressure

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148
Q

Bio: what is the effect of too much glucose on the body

A

It can have a negative affect to osmosis by affecting concentration gradients

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149
Q

Bio: what is the effect of too little glucose

A

Less glucose for respiration

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150
Q

Bio: in what organ is the glucose detected

A

The pancreas

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151
Q

Bio: what is the treatment for kidney failure

A

Dialyses

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152
Q

Bio: what is the process for dialysis

A
  • patients blood flows through the machine
  • the machine contains dialysis fluid that has the optimum levels of water, glucose, ions for a healthy persons blood
  • patients blood passes over a semi permeable membraine in the dialysis fluid that replicated the kidney tubes
  • the dialysis fluid created as a concentration gradient and excess ions and glucose diffuse from one side to another
  • the filtered blood then returns back to the body
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153
Q

Bio: what are the pros of dialysis

A
  • life saving
  • more time to find a donor kidney
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154
Q

Bio: what are the cons of dialysis

A
  • needed 3 times a week and takes 3 - 4 hours
  • expensive
  • increased risk of clots and infections
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155
Q

Bio: who can give a kidney transplant

A
  • a close relative
  • someone who has recently died, on the organ donor register, with a tissue match
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156
Q

Bio: what do most people who have had a kidney transplant have to take for the rest of their life’s and why

A
  • immunosuppressants
  • to stop their immune system from attacking the foreign kidney cells
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157
Q

Bio: what factors can affect the water balance

A
  • sweating
  • eating too much salt
  • exhalation - water lust from lungs by the breath
  • illness
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158
Q

Bio: how is urine produced (2 processes)

A

Each kidney contains very small structures called nephrons, these stages happen at them:
- urafiltration
- selective reabsorbtion

159
Q

Bio: what is the process for urafiltration

A

The blood is filtered, all water, urea and salts move into the nephron tubules, blood cells and proteins remain in the blood as the are too big to move across the capillary walls

160
Q

Bio: what is the process for selective re-absorption

A

Useful substances including water in the nephron are re-absorbed from the nephron tubule back into the bloodstream, this leaves urea, excess water and salts in the tubule, this mixture forms urine that then moves to the bladder

161
Q

Bio: what hormones control the water concentration in the blood

A

ADH - anti-diuretic hormone

162
Q

Bio: what is the process for the control of water concentration in the blood

A
  • too little water, when there is too much water in the blood, the hypothalimus triggers the pituitary gland to release AHD, this increases the permeability of the of the kidney tubes meaning that more water is re-absorbed, this means that there is a small volume of water in the urine
  • too much water, hypothalimus triggers the pituitary gland to stop releasing ADH and the water re-absorbed decreases as the permeability of the kidney tubes decreases
163
Q

Bio: define permiability

A

The ability of things to pass through

164
Q

bio: what are the suspensory ligaments

A

They are a ring of fibres that connect the ciliary muscles to the lens

165
Q

Bio: what are the ciliary muscles

A

They are a ring of smooth muscle that can change the shape of the lens, this is the way the eye focuses light

166
Q

Bio: how does the eye focus on a close object

A

The ciliary muscles contract, the suspensory ligaments loosen, the lens becomes thicker and rounder, light is refracted significantly

167
Q

Bio: how does the eye focus on things far away

A

They ciliary muscles relax and the suspensory ligaments tighten, the lens becomes flatter and thinner, light is refracted less

168
Q

Bio: what is retina scanning

A

Retina scanning looks at the pattern of blood vessels in your retina to identify you

169
Q

Bio: what is the male response to puberty

A
  • testosterone rises, sperm produced
  • underarm, facial and pubic hair grow
  • voice deepens
170
Q

Bio: what is the female response to puberty

A
  • oestrogen rises, mensural cycle is triggered
  • underarm and pubic hair grows
  • breasts enlarge
171
Q

Bio: what are the 4 hormones that control the mensural cycle

A
  • FSH
  • oestrogen
  • LH
  • progesterone
172
Q

Bio: what does progesterone do

A

It is responsible for maintaining the uterine lining

173
Q

Bio: what are the 3 ways of fossils being produced

A
  • soft materials harden, this can produce casts or impressions
  • preservation, where decomposers cannot act, e.g. extremely low temps, preservation is possible
  • mineral replacement, hard parts of organisms are gradually replaced by minerals as they slowly decay, this creates a rock like substance
174
Q

Bio: what things can cause slower extinctions

A

geological and atmospheric changes, over a longer period

175
Q

Bio: what can cause short term extinctions

A
  • large volcanic eruptions
  • meteorite impact
176
Q

Bio: how is a community stable

A

When all the species and environmental factors are balanced and population sized stay more or less constant

177
Q

Bio: what are quadrant and what are they used for

A

they are square frames that can be used to estimate population sizes

178
Q

bio: what is a transect and what/how is it used

A
  • they can be used to investigate the effect of a factor on that distribution of a species
  • a transect line is a piece of tape that is stretched across that habitat of interest
  • quadrantal re placed at regular intervals along the line
179
Q

Bio: what is peat and how does it effect climate change

A

It is a deposit of partially decayed matter, destruction of peat bogs had become more common, they are destroyed by burning or decay, these processes release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, this also decreases biodiversity

180
Q

bio: what can gardeners use peat for

181
Q

Bio: what are the 3 forms of contraception that do not have to be taken daily

A
  • contraceptive patch - releases progesterone, lasts a week
  • implant - lasts for 3 years, releases small amounts of progesterone
  • injection - up to 3 months, contains progesterone
182
Q

Bio: what are the 2 types of contraceptive pill

A
  • combined pill
  • progesterone only pill
183
Q

Bio: how does the progesterone only pill work

A
  • stimulates production of thick slimy mucus, very difficult for sperm to penetrate
  • inhibits the release of FSH (and LH) so eggs don’t mature
184
Q

Bio: how does the combined pill work

A
  • contains both oestrogen and progesterone
  • taken every day, enough oestrogen builds up to inhibit the production of FSH (and LH) so no eggs mature
185
Q

Bio: what are the 2 types of contraception that are inserted into the woman’s body

A
  • diaphragms - a shallow plastic cup, inserted into vagina before intercourse and sits at the entrance to the uterus, prevents sperm from reaching the egg, can be covered in spermicide that can kill sperm
  • IUDs (intrauterine devices) - aka the coil, t shaped devices inserted into the uterus, they prevent the implant of an embryo, some of the also release progesterone
186
Q

Bio: what are the 3 types of male contraception

A
  • condoms
  • sterilisation
  • natural methods - timing so as not to have intercourse during ovulation
187
Q

Bio: how can men be sterilised

A

Sperm ducts are cut, so sperm not released on ejaculation

188
Q

Bio: how can women be sterilised

A

Fallopian tubes cut, eggs cannot reach the uterous

189
Q

bio: what are 3 roles of proteins in the body

A
  • enzymes
  • haemoglobin
  • antibiodies
190
Q

Bio: what is food security

A

It will be achieved when the whole global human population has access to enough food to stay healthy

191
Q

Bio: what are the factors that can affect the goal of achieving food security

A
  • birth rates
  • new plants/pathogens
  • extreme meteorological events
  • conflicts
  • costs of agricultural inputs
  • diet shifts
192
Q

Bio: what is mycoprotein, properties, who’s it for?

A

It is a food source that is high in fibre and low in fat, suitable for vegitarians

193
Q

Bio: how is mycoprotein produced

A

It is produced by growing the fungus fusarium in VATS called fermenters under aerobic conditions, by using glucose syrup as a food source

194
Q

bio: what are the 2 types of biotechnology you need to know

A
  • growing microorganisms for food (mycoprotein)
  • genetic modification
195
Q

Bio: what is an example of a genetically modified crop

A

golden rice - it is a genetically modified rice that contains a molecule that helps make vitamin A

196
Q

Bio: what is golden rice modified to contain

A

A molecule that helps make vitamin A

197
Q

Bio: what affects can declining fish stock have

A
  • financial issues
  • food security is threatened
  • food chains are affected
  • populations can be at risk
198
Q

Bio: what are sustainable fisheries

A

Sustainable fisheries do not catch fish at a faster rate than they can reproduce

199
Q

Bio: what allow sustainable fisheries to operate

A
  • net sized is regulated
  • fishing quotas
200
Q

Bio: what are fishing quotas

A

They restrict the number and size of fish that can be legally caught

201
Q

Bio: how is net size regulated

A

Controlling the size of the holes in the nets allow the smaller and younger fish to slip though the net so they can survive (at least) to maturity

202
Q

Bio: why do farmers feed their animals high protein foods

A

Because it can boost their growth rates

203
Q

Bio: why does shortening food chains increase farm efficiency

A

Only abt 10% of energy passes between the trophic levels, stopping this greatly increases efficiency

204
Q

Bio: how can energy be saved when rearing livestock (by limiting their energy expendature

A

Keeping them warm and limiting their movement

205
Q

Bio: what is the fungus that is used to make mycoprotien

206
Q

Bio: why do fruit ripen faster when in the presence of banana

A

Becausee they release ethene which causes them to ripen faster

207
Q

Bio: how do non-coding (those that don’t code for proteins) affect the expression of genes

A

They can turn genes on/off

208
Q

Bio: where in the brain in the hypothalimus

209
Q

Bio: where in the brain is the cerebellum

210
Q

bio: where in the brain is the Medela oblongada

211
Q

Bio: where in the brain is the cerebrum

212
Q

Bio: what is a mutation

A

a change in the DNA sequence of an organism

213
Q

Bio: what hormones are used for fertility treatment

A

FSH
LH
Multiple eggs can be released

214
Q

Bio: what day does ovulation occur

215
Q

Bio: what is a pyramid of numbers

A

shows the total number of individual organisms at each level in the food chain of an ecosystem

216
Q

Bio: What is a pyramid of biomass

A

represents the mass of organisms at each trophic level

217
Q

Bio: how do modern biological techniques help our ability to culture microorganisms

A

They allow us to be able to grow microorganisms in large quantities for food

218
Q

Bio: how do we produce insulin to treat people with diabetes

A

a genetically modified bacterium produces human insulin, when it is harvested and purified I can be used to treat people with diabetes

219
Q

Bio: what is happening to the fish stocks in the oceans

A

They are declining

220
Q

Bio: what are some biological factors that affect food security

A
  • increased birth rate - more people
  • changing diets means scarce food resources are transported around the world
  • new pests and pathogens
  • environmental changes
  • cost of agricultural inputs
  • conflicts which can affect availability of food
221
Q

Bio: what are producers (2 examples)

A

They are mostly plants and algae

222
Q

Bio: how much of the incident energy of light from the sun do producers convert into energy

223
Q

Bio: what are losses of biomass due to

A
  • not all material is ingested, some is egested as faeces
  • some absorbed material is lost as waste, such as carbon dioxide and water in respiration and water in urea and urine
  • large amounts of glucose are used in respiration check if last oun counts with sir
224
Q

Bio: on a pyramid of biomass where is trophic level 1

A

It is at the bottom of the pyramid

225
Q

Bio: what is at level one through 4 in trophic levels

A
  • level 1 - plants and algae, producers
  • level 2 - herbivores eat plants, primary consumers
  • level 3 - carnivores eat herbivores, secondary consumers
  • level 4 - carnivores eat other carnivores tertiary consumers
226
Q

Bio: what are apex predators

A

They are carnivores with no predators

227
Q

Bio: what do decomposers do

A

They break down dead plant and animal matter by secreting enzymes into the environment, small soluble food molecules then diffuse into the organisim

228
Q

Bio: what are some ways that scientists and concerned citizens have tried to maintain biodiversity

A
  • breeding programs
  • protection and regeneration of rare habitats
  • re-introduction of field margins and hedge rows
  • reduction of deforestation
  • recycling of resources rather than putting waste in landfill
229
Q

Bio: what has large deforestation in tropical areas be done for

A
  • to provide land for cattle and rice fields
  • to grow crops for biofuels
230
Q

Bio: what are 2 ways peat releases carbon dioxide into the environment

A
  • decay
  • buring of the peat
231
Q

Bio: what might cause environmental changes

A
  • the seasons
  • geographical changes
  • human interaction based changes
232
Q

Bio: what is biodiversity

A

It is the variety of all of the different species of organisms on earth or within and ecosystem

233
Q

Bio: what does great biodiversity ensure

A

It ensures the stability of ecosystems by reducing the dependency of one species on another for food, shelter and the maintenance of the physical environment

234
Q

Bio: what are human activities doing to biodiversity

A

They are reducing it, only recently have measures been introduced to try to stop this reduction in biodiversity

235
Q

Bio: what relevance does biodiversity have to the human species survival

A

The future of the human species on earth relies on maintaining a good level of biodiversity

236
Q

Bio: what affects does an increased human population have on the amount of waste produced

A

More humans (and an increased standard of living) mean that more resources are used and more waste is produced

237
Q

Bio: what will happen if waste and chemical materials are not handled properly

A

More pollution will be caused

238
Q

Bio: what 3 places can pollution occur

A
  • air
  • land
  • water
239
Q

Bio: what are the types of pollution that can occur on land

A
  • landfill
  • toxic chemcals
240
Q

Bio: what are the types of pollution that occur in water (like where are they from)

A
  • from sewage
  • fertilisers
  • toxic chemicals
241
Q

Bio: what are the types of pollution that can occur in air

A
  • smoke
  • toxic gas
242
Q

Bio: what does the destruction of peat bogs do

A

It decreases biodiversity

243
Q

Bio: what happens to the number of predators and prey on stable communities

A

They rise and fall in cycles

244
Q

Bio: what produces all of the biomass on earth

A

Photosynthetic organisims

245
Q

Bio: what do all food chains begin with

246
Q

Bio: what is an example of an extromophile

A

Bacteria living in deep sea vents

247
Q

Bio: what are the 3 types of adaptations of organisims

A
  • structural
  • behavioural
  • functional
248
Q

Bio: what do organisms need to survive and to reproduce

A

A supply of materials from their environment and from other living organisims

249
Q

Bio: in a community or habitat what do plants often compete with eachother for

A
  • light
  • space
  • water
  • mineral ions
250
Q

Bio: in a community or ecosystem what do animals often compete with each other for

A
  • mates
  • food
  • territiory
251
Q

Bio: what is is called when, if one species is removed, it affects the whole ecosystem

A

interdependence

252
Q

Bio: what is a stable community

A

It is one where all the species and environmental factors are in balance so population sizes remain constant

253
Q

Bio: what do gardeners do to make compost

A

Gardeners and farmers try to provide optimism conditions for rapid decay of waste and biological material

254
Q

Bio: what do farmers and gardeners use compost for

A

It is used as a natural fertiliser for growing garden plants and crops

255
Q

Bio: what is an ecosystem

A

It is the interaction of a community of living organisms (biotics) with the non-living (abiotic) parts of their environment

256
Q

Bio: what does homeostasis do

A

It maintains optimal conditions for enzyme action and cell function

257
Q

Bio: what type of responses do homeostatic reactions occur

A

Nerovus and chemical responces

258
Q

Bio: what do all control systems include

A
  • receptors - cells which detect stimuli
  • effectors - muscles or glands
  • coordination centers
259
Q

Bio: what are receptors

A

They are cells which detect stimuli

260
Q

Bio: what are effectors

A

They are muscles or glands which bring about responces which restore optimum levels

261
Q

Bio: what part of the brain do reflex actions not incude

A

The conscious part

262
Q

Bio: what is the brain made of

A

it is made of billions of interconnected neurons and had different regions that carry out functions

263
Q

Bio: how were regions of the brain mapped

A

Neuroscientists have been able to map regions of the brain by studying patients with brain damage, electrically stimulating different parts of the brain and using MRI scanning techniques, the complexity and delicacy of the brain makes investigating and treating disorders very difficult.

264
Q

Bio: what is the eye

A

It is a sense organ containing receptors sensitive to light intencity and colour

265
Q

Bio: what controls and monitors body temperature in the body

A

The thermoregulatory center

266
Q

Bio: what receptors does teh thermoregulatory center contain

A

Receptors that are sensitive to the temperature of the blood

267
Q

Bio: what organ contains receptors that send signals to the thermoregulatory center in the brain

A

The skin contains temperature receptors that can send signals back to the thermoregulatory center in the brain

268
Q

bio: what happens when the temperature in the body is too high

A
  • The blood vessels dilate
  • sweat is produced from the sweat glands
  • both of these cause a transfer of energy from the skin to the environment
269
Q

Bio: what happens if the blood temperature is too low

A
  • the blood vessels constrict
  • sweating stops
  • skeletal muscles contract (skiver)
270
Q

Bio: what are the properties of asexual production

A
  • it involves only one parent and no fusion of gametes
  • there is no mixing of genetic information, clones are created
  • only mitosis is involved
271
Q

bio: where does meiosis occur

A

Reproductive organs

272
Q

Bio: what happens during cell division that forms gametes

A
  • copies of genetic information are made
  • the cell divides twice and each daughter cell has half of the normal genetic information (a single set of chromosomes)
  • all gametes are genetically different from one another
273
Q

Bio: when do gametes join and what does this do to the number of chromasones

A

During fertilisation, it restores the normal number of chromasones

274
Q

Bio: what happens to the zygote after fertilisation

A

It divides by mitosis and thus the number of cells increases, as the embryo develops and the number of cells increases cells can begin to differentiate

275
Q

Bio: what are the advantages of asexual reproduction

A
  • only one parent needed
  • more time and energy efficient as finding a mate is not necessary
  • faster than sexual reproduction
  • many identical offspring can be produced when conditions are favorable
276
Q

Bio: are all organisms exclusive to either sexual or asexual reproduction

A

No, some organisms can do both sexual and asexual reproduction, depending on the conditions

277
Q

Bio: what is an example of a protist that produces sexually and asexually

A
  • malaria
  • it reproduces sexually inside the mosquito
  • it reproduces asexually in the human body
278
Q

Bio: what is an example of a fungi that produces sexually and asexually

A
  • many fungi do this
  • they produce asexually by spores
  • they produce sexually for variation
279
Q

Bio: what is an example of a plant that can reproduce both sexually and asexually

A
  • many plants do this
  • they produce seeds sexually
  • they used runners, such as strawberry plants, or bulb division such as daffodils, to reproduce asexually
280
Q

Bio: what is it called when DnA is copied into mRnA

A

Transcription

281
Q

Bio: what is attached to an TRNA when is bonds to a codon

A

An amino acid

282
Q

Bio dna unfolding during protien syntheses ?

A

The two strands of the DNA helix are unzipped by breaking of the weak Hydrogen bonds between base pairs

283
Q

Bio: what are the 3 types of mutation

A
  • addition (of a bace pair)
  • subtraction (of a bace pair)
  • replacement/substitution (of a bace pair)
284
Q

Bio: what is the most damaging type of mutation

A

Addition and deletion because from the point of deletion and addition all of the subsequent amino acids change

285
Q

Bio: what is the least damaging type of mutation

A

Substitution - least harmful as it only changes one amino acid

286
Q

Bio: what are causes of mutation

A
  • Ionising radiation
  • chemical mutagens - such as some from cigarette smoke
287
Q

Bio: how were living things traditionally classified

A

They were classified into groups depending on their structure and characteristics, in a system developed by Carl Linnaeus

288
Q

Bio: what did linneauses system classify organisms into

A
  • kingdom
  • phylum
  • class
  • order
  • family
    -genus
  • species
289
Q

Bio: how are organisms named

A

They are named by the binomial system of genus and species

290
Q

Bio: after the linnean system what happened that led to other models of classification

A
  • the evidence of internal structures became more developed
  • the understanding of biochemical processes progressed
  • improvements in microscopes
291
Q

Bio: what is the current system of classification of organisms and why did it come about

A

Due to evidence available for chemical analysis there is now a ‘three-domain system’ developed by Carl Woese, in this system organisms are divided into:
- Archaea (privative bacteria usually living in extreme environments)
- bacteria (true bacteria)
- eukaryote (which includes protists, fungi, plants and animals)

292
Q

Bio: what are archaea

A

They are primative bacteria usually living in extreme environments

293
Q

Bio: what are bacteria (in the 3 domain system)

A

They are true bacteria

294
Q

Bio: what are eukaryota

A

They are protists, fungi, plants and animals

295
Q

Bio: what is a method used by scientists to show how they believe organisms are related

A

Evolutionary trees

296
Q

Bio: what do evolutionary trees use (types of evidence)

A

Current classification data for living organisms and fossil data for extinct organisms

297
Q

Bio: why did bacteria evolve rapidly

A

Because they reproduce at a fast rate

298
Q

Bio: what do mutations of bacterial pathogens produce

A

They produce new strains

299
Q

Bio: how do we reduce that rate of development of antibiotics resistant strains

A
  • doctors not prescribing antibiotics improperly, such as treating non-serious viral infections
  • patients should complete their course of antibiotics so all bacteria are killed and none survive to mutate and form resistant strains
  • the agricultural use of antibiotics should be restricted
300
Q

Bio: why is the development of new antibiotics not likely to keep up with the development of resistant strains

A

Because the development of new antibiotics is costly and slow

301
Q

Bio: what were many forms of early life and what relevance does this have on own knowledge of how life began on earth

A

They were soft-bodied, this means that they would have left few traces behind, the traces that may have been left may have been destroyed by geological activity

302
Q

Bio: what do we learn from fossils

A

How much or how little different organisms have changed as life developed on earth

303
Q

Bio: what 3 things does homeostasis control

A
  • blood glucose control
  • body temp
  • water levels
304
Q

Bio: what hormone does the pancreas produce

305
Q

Bio: what does the pituitary gland do

A

It secretes several hormones into the blood in response to body conditions

306
Q

Bio: what do pituitary gland hormones cause

A

They act on other glands to stimulate other hormones to be released to bring about effects

307
Q

Bio: where is the pituitary gland

308
Q

Bio: where is the pancreas

309
Q

Bio: where is the thyroid

310
Q

Bio: where is the adrenal gland

311
Q

Bio: what happens when blood sugar is too low

A

The pancreas releases glucagon which changes glycogen deposits in the liver into glucose check

312
Q

Bio: what is lost through sweat

A
  • water
  • ions
  • urea
313
Q

Bio: how is the loss of water ions and urea through the skin controled

A

It is not!!!!!!!!

314
Q

Bio: what does the digestion of proteins in the digestive system result in

A

An excess of amino acids which need to be excreted safely

315
Q

Bio: how are amino acids turned into urea

A

In the liver acids are deaminated to form ammonia, it is toxic and so is immediately converted into urea for safe excretion

316
Q

Bio: when is adrenaine relased

A

Times of fear and stress

317
Q

Bio: what hormones are included in fertility drugs

318
Q

Bio: what is the process for IVF

A
  • FSH and LH are given to a mother to stimulate the maturation of several eggs
  • the eggs are collected from the mother and fertilised by sperm from the father in the lab
  • these fertilised eggs develop into embryos
  • at the stage when they are tiny balls of cells, one or 2 embryos are inserted into the mothers uterus (womb)
319
Q

Bio: what are the drawbacks of fertility treatment

A
  • it is very emotionally and physically stressful
  • The success rates are not high
  • it can lead to multiple births which are a risk to both the babies and the mother
320
Q

Bio: during puberty what characteristics do hormones cause

A

Secondary sex characteristics

321
Q

Bio: where is oestrogen produced

A

At the ovary

322
Q

Bio: how often are eggs released

323
Q

Bio: what is the main male and female reproductive hormone

A
  • male - testosterone
  • female - oestrogen
324
Q

Bio: what does testosterone stimulate the production of

325
Q

bio: what does FSH do

A

Stimulates the maturation of the egg

326
Q

Bio: what stimulates the release of the egg

327
Q

Bio: what 2 hormones are involved in maintaining the uterus lining

A
  • oestrogen
  • progesterone
328
Q

Bio: who developed the 3 domane system

A

Carl woese

329
Q

Bio: where is DNA found

A

In the chromasones

330
Q

Bio: how many strands make up DNA

331
Q

Bio: what have scientists done to the whole human genome

A

It has all been studied

332
Q

Bio: what is the process of studying the human genome important for

A
  • it can be useful for searching for genes linked to types of disease
  • for understanding the treatment of inherited disorders
  • can be used to trace human migration patterns in the past
333
Q

Bio: what does the order of bases control

A

The order in which amino acids are assembled to produce a particular protein

334
Q

Bio: what sub-cellular structure makes proteins

335
Q

Bio: how often do mutations occur and what do most mutations do

A

continuously, most mutations do not alter the protein or only slightly so that its appearance or function is not changed

336
Q

Bio: what can happen when a mutation alters a protein to make it have a different shape

A

An enzyme may no longer fit the substrate binding sit or a structural protein may loose its strength

337
Q

Bio: what can a mutation in non-coding DNA do

A

They may affect how genes are expressed

338
Q

Bio: what causes most characteristics

A

They are a result of multiple genes interacting

339
Q

Bio: what is genetic engineering

A

It is a process which involves modifying the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from another organism to give it a desired characteristic

340
Q

Bio: how have plant crops been genetically engineered

A

They have been engineered to be resistant to diseases and to produce bigger better fruits

341
Q

Bio: how have bacteria been genetically engineered

A

They have been engineered to produce human insulin

342
Q

Bio: what types of modifications do GM crops include

A
  • they can be resistant to insect attack or herbicides
  • they can generally show increased yields
343
Q

Bio: what are some concerns about GM crops

A

They could have an effect on the proportions of flowers and insects and some people feel the effects of eating GM crops on human health have not been fully explored

344
Q

Bio: in relation to genetic engineering what is modern medical research exploring

A

How to overcome some inherited disorders

345
Q

Bio: what is the process for genetic engineering

A
  1. Enzymes isolate the required gene and the gene is inserted into a vector, usually a bacteria plasmid or virus
  2. The vector is used to insert the gene into required cells
  3. Genes are transferred to the cells of animals , plants or microorganisms at an early stage of development so that they develop with the required characteristics.
346
Q

Bio: what are some risks of genetic engineering

A
  • they could cause allergic reactions
  • they could be harmful, toxins from crops could get into foods
  • pollen could be toxic and harm insects that transfer it
  • ethical concerns and prices
347
Q

bio: how many pairs of chromasones control the characteristics of humans and what do the others do

A

22 chromasones control characteristics and they others determine sex

350
Q

Bio: how much genetic variation is there usually within a population of a species

A

There is usually extensive variation within a population of a species

351
Q

Bio: how often do mutations occur

A

continuously

352
Q

Bio: how do variations occur and what affect on the phenotype do most have

A

Most variations occur from mutations and most of them do not affect the phenotype, some influence the phenotype, very few determine the phenotype

353
Q

Bio: how often do mutations affect the phenotype

A

Not very often

354
Q

Bio: if a mutation leads to variation in the phenotype, what can this lead to

A

a relatively rapid change in the species

355
Q

Bio: what is evolution

A

It is a change in the inherited characteristics of a population over time through a process of natural selection, which may result in the formation of a new species

356
Q

Bio: what are the 2 pieces of evidence that you must know for evolution

A
  • bacterial resistance
  • fossils
357
Q

Bio: what did gregor mendel do

A

In the mid 19th century he carried out breeding experiments on plants, one of his observations was that inheritance of each characteristic is determined by units that are passed on to descendants unchanged

358
Q

Bio: when was the behaviour of chromasones during cell growth observed

A

Late 19th century

359
Q

Bio: when was it observed that chromosomes and Mendel’s units behaved in a similar way

A

20th century

360
Q

Bio: when was the structure of DNA determined

A

The mid 20th century

361
Q

Bio: why were Mendel’s discoveries not recognised until after his death

A
  • when he presented his work to other scientists he did not communicate it well so they did not really understand it
  • it was published in a scientific journal that was not well known so not many people read it.
362
Q

Bio: whose work led to gene theory

A

many scientists

363
Q

Bio: when and is what book did Darwin publish his ideas

A
  • 1859
  • on the origin of species
364
Q

Bio: why was the theory of evolution only gradually accepted

A
  • the theory challenged the idea that god made all animals and plants that live on earth
  • there was insufficient evidence at the time the theory was published to convince many scientists
  • the mechanism of inheritance and variation was not known until 50 years after the theory was discovered
365
Q

Bio: what is an embryo transplant

A

It is where cells from a developing animal embryo before they become specialised, then transplanting the identical embryos into host mothers

366
Q

Bio: what are the 2 methods for plant cloning

A
  • cuttings
  • tissue cultures
367
Q

Bio: how are plants cloned through cuttings

A

It is an older method where gardeners produce many identical new paints from a parent plant by taking a cutting of the plant check

368
Q

Bio: how are plants cloned by tissue cultures

A

Using small groups of cells from a plant to grow identical new plants

369
Q

Bio: why are tissue culture clones of plants important

A

It is important for preserving rare plant species or commercially in nurseries

370
Q

Bio: how does one species form 2

A

If 2 populations of one species become so different in phenotype that they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring they have formed 2 new species

371
Q

Bio: what is selective breeding also known as

A

Artificial selection

372
Q

Bio: how long ago did we begin doing selective breeding and what on

A

1000s of years ago, on food crops, wild plants and domesticated animals

373
Q

Bio: what are characteristics that organisms are selectively bred for

A
  • disease resistance in food crops
  • animals that produce more meat or milk
  • domestic dogs with a more gentile nature
  • large unusual flowers
374
Q

Bio: what negative thing can selective breeding lead to

A

Inbreeding, this is where some breeds are particularly prone to disease of inherited defects

375
Q

Bio: who created the theory of speciation

A

Alfred Wallace

376
Q

Bio: what is Alfred Wallace best known for

A

He worked worldwide and contributed much to evolutionary theory, he worked on the carning colouration of animals and he is known also for his theory of speciation

377
Q

Bio: has the theory of speciation advanced sinse Wallace and why

A

Yes because more evidence was discovered over time

378
Q

Bio: what can effectors be

A
  • muscles
  • glands secreting hormones
379
Q

Bio: where are the ovaries

380
Q

Bio: in comparison to the central nervous system what are the properties of hormones

A
  • the effects are slower
  • they act for longer
381
Q

Bio: what are some causes of environmental variation

A
  • amount of water
  • tattoos
    Check for more
382
Q

Bio: what type of organisms are saprophytic

A
  • fungi
  • bacteria
    Check
383
Q

Bio: where does amalayse act

A

Mount and small intestine

384
Q

bio: what is eutrophication

A

it is a type of water pollution caused by the addition of fertiliser or sewage

385
Q

bio: what is the process for eutrophication

A
  1. excessive organic waste such as fertilisers are added by being washed into the area by rainwater or by some other means
  2. algae overgrows
  3. no light for plants sitting low in the water so they die and are decomposed reducing the O2 in the water by respiration
  4. reduced O2 in the water, aquatic animals die
386
Q

bio: what are the properties of FSH

A
  • it is produced by the pituitary glands
  • it causes egg to mature
  • released on day 14
  • stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen
387
Q

bio: what are the properties of oestrogen

A
  • it is produced by the ovaries
  • stimulates the uterine lining to grow
  • inhibits the release of FSH
  • stimulates the release of LH
388
Q

bio: what are the properties of LH

A
  • produced by the pituitary glands
  • stimulates the release of the egg
  • day 14
389
Q

bio: what are the properties of progesterone

A
  • produced in the ovaries
  • maintains uterus lining
  • increases in stage 4
  • progesterone levels drop then the cycle repeats
390
Q

bio: if the egg is fertilised what happens to progesterone

A

the corpus luteum does not break down and continues to produce progesterone

392
Q

Bio: who published works on the theory of evolution in 1858

A

Alfred Wallace and Charles Darwin together

393
Q

bio: how can type one diabetes be treated

A

it can be treated by monitoring the blood sugar levels and injecting human insulin throughout the day (particularly after meals)

394
Q

bio: how can type 2 diabetes be treated

A

by maintaining a low carb diet and regular exercise to reduce the need for insulin

395
Q

Bio: what did the observation that units and chromasones behaved in a similar way lead to

A

The idea that units, now called genes were located in the chromasomes

396
Q

bio: what does the graph of hormone levels over time look like (mensural cycle)

GCSEs (35 decks)

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