🍃Biology Paper 1 Flashcards
Bio: what is rose black spot
It is a fungi that spreads through rain, wind and contact. Its signified by purple or black spots on leaves. To treat it burn the affected leaves
Bio: what is tobacco mosaic …
It is a virus that spreads by contact and causes a mosaic pattern on leaves, no treatment
Bio: what are the 2 types of antibiotic
Bactericidal and bacteriostatic
Bio: what do bactericidal antibiotics do
Kill the bacteria by removing the cell wall
Bio: what are bacteriostatic antibiotics
They stop bacteria from reproducing by stopping protein synthesis and metabolic activity
Bio: why do antibiotics not kill viruses
Because they don’t have a cell wall
Bio: what are 2 types of resistant bacteria
Mdr-tb, MRSA
Bio: what do plasmids in bacteria do in reference to antibiotics
They encode for resistance
Bio: what are the 2 ways that painkillers can work
Blocking the pain signals, anti-inflamitory
Bio: what are enzymes
Biological catalysts
Bio: what is pepsin
An enzyme that breaks down protein works at PH 2 and is produced in the stomach
Bio: how do you test for sugar/glucose
You use Benedict’s solution and put the test tube and a hot/warm water bath, red is positive, yellow is weakly positive and blue is negative
Bio: how do you test for proteins
Biuret, purple is positive and pale blue is negative
Bio: how do you test for lipids
Ethanol, goes cloudy when positive
Bio: what does starch break down into
Glucose
Bio: what does protein break down into
Amino acids
Bio: what do lipids break down into
Fatty acids and glycerol
Bio: what does starch break down into
Glucose
Bio: how do you test for carbohydrates
Iodine, brown/blue is pos and yellow/brown is neg
Bio: what are antitoxins
They are a protein released by white blood cells to neutralise toxins that might be released by pathogens
Bio: what is herd immunity
This is where enough of a community is immune to protect the non immune
Bio: what are lymphocytes
White blood cells involved in the specific immune responce
Bio: what are phagocytes
They are in the non specific response and engulf pathogens
Bio: what are monoclonal antibodies
They are identical copies of one antibody
Bio: what are monoclonal antibodies used for
- diagnosis
- to measure the levels of hormones and other chemicals in blood or to detect pathogens
- in research to locate the identity of specific molecules
- to treat some diseases
Bio: what is metabolisim
The sum of all of the chemical reactions in an organisim
Bio: what removes lactic acid (part of body)
Liver
Bio: what are 4 things that affect the rate of photosynthesis
Light, temp, co2, chlorophyll concentration
Bio: what is an extremophyle
It is an organism that can survive in extreme conditions
Bio: what is an ecosystem
It is the living and non living things in an environment
Bio: what is a population
The group of a certain species in an certain environment/ area
Bio: what is a community
A group of populations
Bio: what is osmosis
The net random movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration through a semi permiable membraine.
Bio: what is an autoimmune condition
It is where the body attacks itself
Bio: what affect does oestrogen have on LH
It increases LH - lutenizing hormone
Bio: what does oestrogen do
Builds up the uterus lining
Bio: what is FSH
Follicle stimulating hormone
Bio: what hormone does FSH stimulate the production of
Oestrogen
Bio: what affect does oestrogen have on FSH
Decreases it
Bio: when does progesterone get released
Progesterone is released when an egg is fertalised
Bio: what affect does progesterone have on FSH
Decreases
Bio: what does insulin do and how
It decreases blood sugar by converting glucose into glycogen and pushed glucose into cells.
Bio: what are the 4 stages of the menstrual cycle
- Menstruation (day 1) - loosing the lining of the uterus
- Follicular phase - uterine lining builds up, ovum matures
- Egg released-ovulation (~day 14) and travels down the fallopian tubes
- Luteal phase uterine lining stays the same
Bio: where are Eukaryotic cells found
Plants, animals, fungi and protists
Bio: where are prokaryotic cells found
In bacteria
Bio: what is the size on Eukaryotic cells
5-100 micrometres
Bio: what are the size of Prokaryotic cells
0.2-2 micrometres
Bio: what can type 1 diabetics not produce
They cannot produce enough insulin
Bio: what do type 2 diabetics not do
Cells no longer respond to the insulin released and so too much sugar is in the blood
Bio: what does insulin do
It forces glucose into the cells and then cause glucose to form deposits in the liver which is then changed into glycogen
Bio: what does insulin do to the blood sugar and where is it produced
It decreases blood sugar and is produced in the pancreas
Bio: what do Prokaryotic cells NOT have (3 things)
They do not contain a nucleus, mitochondria or chloroplasts
Bio: do prokaryotic cells contain plasmids and what do plasmids do
Some do, they allow genetic information to be shared, they can replicate to do this
Bio: do prokaryotes have a nucleus
No, instead most of their genetic information is stored in a single loop in the cytoplasnm
Bio: what does glucagon do and where is it released
It is released from the pancreas and it stimulates stored glycogen in the pancreas to be converted into glucose and to be released into the bloodstream.
Bio: what is a follicle in the menstrual cycle
It is the developing egg
bio: What are the 2 types of painkillers
Anti-inflammatory, blocking nerve signals
bio: What is the equation for photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
bio: what are the 2 things plants use to store glucose and what do they do with them
cellulose - provides the plants with strength
starch - they store it to use for energy
bio: what is the xylem made of and what is it used for
it is made of dead cells and it is used for transport of minerals and water from the roots, strengthened by lignin, passive transport
bio: what is the phloem made of and what is it used for
it is made of living cells ( and cellulose ) and transports sugars made by photosynthesis both directions and also amino acids, active transport by using companion cells with lots of mitochondria to release energy
Bio: in the digestive system what does the small intestine do
Digests food and absorbs soluble food molecules
Bio: in the digestive system what does the liver do
It produces bile
Bio: in the digestive system what does the large intestine do
It absorbs water from the remaining undigested food and creates faeces
Bio: in the digestive system what does the stomach do
It digests food (mostly protein), breaks it down and kills foreign bacteria
Bio: in the digestive system what do the glands do
They produce digestive enzymes
Bio: what do the nephrons do and what hormone are they controlled by
They filter small molecules:
- minerals
- urea
- water
- glucose
They are controlled by ADH (more ADH more water reabsorbed)
Bio: does mitosis or meiosis create identical cells
Mitosis creates identical cells
Bio: how many daughter cells are created after mieosis
4
Bio: what is the abbreviation for the molecules that make up dna
A T C G
Bio: what is the backbone of DNA
DNA has a sugar - phosphate backbone
Bio: what makes up one amino acid
3 bace pairs (e.g. A and T)
Bio: what are genes made of
They are a sequence of bases (which make up amino acids) which encodes for a protein
Bio: what is a chromosome
It is a strand of DNA wrapped around proteins
Bio: what is a genome
All of the genetic information in an organisim.
Bio: are dominant genes upper or lower case
Upper case
Bio: if gene B encodes for brown eye and b for blue eyes what colour eyes will a person with Bb have? What about bb?
Bb = brown eyes
bb = blue eyes
Bio: what are alleles
They are different versions of the same gene
Bio: what are antibodies
They are not cells, they attach to antigens and are specific to certain antigens
Bio: what is an antigen
It is a chemical (usually a protein) on the surface of a cell the is specific to it.
Bio: what is a tissue
A group of SIMILAR cells
Bio: if a person has a dominant medical condition must one of the parents show symptoms
Yes
bio: what is the equation for anaerobic respiration (human)
glucose -> lactic acid
bio: why is anaerobic respiration (animals) less efficient
becasue it does not break the glucose down completly
bio: what is fermentation, where does it occur and what is the organisim that it occurs in
fermentation occurs in yeast which is a uni cellular fungi, fermention is anaerobic respiration transferring glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxids that happens optimaly at 37 degrees
bio: what are the effects of exercise on the body
its affects are:
- increased heart rate
- increased breathing rate
- increased breath volume
- blood vessels dilating
bio: what is oxygen debt and what happens
this refers to the extra oxygen needed after exersice to oxidise the lactic acid and remove it from the cells
bio: how is oxygen debt repayed
- the blood flowing throug the muscles transports lactic acid to the liver
- it is reacted with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water
- heavy breathing helps to get this oxygen to the lungs
bio: how do viruses survive and replicate
they invade cells, insert their own DNA which allows them to be copied
bio: what happens once the virus has been synthesised in the cell
the cell burst releasing the virus into the nearby cells
Bio: what is the average size of a bacteria
0.5 to 5 μm
Bio: what is the average size of human cells
10 - 30 μm
Bio: what is the average size of a virus
20-400 nm
Bio: what is a virus
It is genetic information in a protein coat
Bio: what is a protist
They are eukaryotic organisims that are not animals, plants and fungi
Bio: define a bacteria
Bacteria – A group of microorganisms which have a cell wall without cellulose and with no nucleus
Bio: what are the 3 properties of active transport
Conc low to high
Energy required
Carrier protiens
Bio: what is a place that active transport occurs
Across cell membraine
bio: what are the 2 ways of treating infertility
fertility drugs
invitro fertalisation
bio: how can glucose be made into amino acids
by combinting it with nitrate ions
bio: what makes a protist eukariotic
the fact that it has a nucleus
bio: what are the 3 ways of spreading infectious disease
direct contact
air
water
Bio: how do you test for lipids
You use ethanol
Bio: what part of the blood transports glucose
The blood plasma
Bio: what does heterozygous mean
One dominant and one recessive gene, Bb or bB
Bio: what does homozygous mean
Either one dominant and one dominant allele or one recessive and one recessive
BB or bb
Bio: describe the double bace pair structure of dna
2 molecules of A, T, G or C form a bace and 2 of these bases come together to form a ‘rung’ in the DNA ladder
Bio: what is a base in DNA
It is a pair of molecules A, T, G, C
Bio: how many bases are required to encode for one amino acid in DNA
3, this is known as the triplet code
Bio: what is the immune system made up of
White blood cells
Bio: what produces antibodies
White blood cells
Bio: describe how antibodies work to destroy pathogens
Antigens are proteins found on the surface of cells, antibodies form a complimentary shape to these antibodies, white blood cells produce these antibodies that then join pathogen cells form a microorganism cluster that can then be ingested by the phagocytes.
Bio: what are antigens
They are chemicals often proteins on the surface of cells that are specific to them
Bio: explain how vaccines work
A dead pathogen is injected, the immune system recognises that the antigen is foreign, white blood cells (B lymphocytes) antibodies that are specific to the injected pathogen, some of these white blood cells produce memory cells and are able to produce the antibodies for the pathogen
Bio: name 2 ion deficiencies and say how they can affect plants
- Magnesium deficiency, magnesium is required for the production of chlorophyll, the plant cannot photosynthesise as well, also the leaves go yellow
- Nitrate deficiency, they are needed for the production of proteins, without proteins plants cannot grow
Bio: describe a nitrate deficiency in plants
Nitrates are used for protein synthesis, without proteins plants cannot grow
Bio: describe a magnesium deficiency in plants
Magnesium deficiency means that the plant cannot produce as much chlorophyll and so cannot photosynthesize as much, it also turns the leaves yellow.
Bio: how do bacteriostatic antibiotics work
They inhibit protein synthesis and stop the bacteria from reproducing.
Bio: what are the 3 types of plant defences and what are some examples
- physical defenses - waxy cuticle, bark, cell walls
- chemical defenses - antibacterial chemicals are produced, poisons can also be produced
- mechanical defenses - thorns, spikes, mimicry
bio: what is an epithelial tissue
they line the outer surface of organs and blood vessels
bio: what do muscular tissues do
they contract and relax to exert a force
bio: what is a mesophyll
it is a layer capable of photosynthesis
bio: what are epidermal tissues in animals
skin
bio: what are epidermal tissues in plants
waxy covering of some plants
bio: what is glandular tissue
it is tissue that produces digestive ‘juices’
bio: define an organ
they are groups of tissues that work together to perform a function
bio: what is an organ system
they are groups of organs that work together to perform specific roles
bio: what is the active site of an enzyme
they catalyze the reaction, only when the specific reacting chemical is bound to it
bio: what are the 3 main digestive enzymes
- amylase
- protease
- lipase
bio: what can amylase help to digest
Starch
bio: what can protease help to digest
digests proteins
bio: what can lipase help to digest
fats
bio: what is bile used for and where is it stored
- it is stored in the gall bladder
- it neutralizes acid thus creates conditions that enzymes in the small intestines operate best in
bio: what is emulsification and what role in it does bile play
emulsification is bile breaking up fats into small droplets, these droplets have a higher surface area and so it is easier for lipase to catalyze the reaction
bio: what are arteries
- they transport blood form the heart to the organs
- they have thick muscle walls
- the artery walls have elastic fibers, allowing them to strech
bio: what are capillaries
- arteries branch into capillaries, which are much smaller, one cell thick
- food and oxygen move out of the capillaries and into the cells
- waste products such as carbon dioxide move out of the cells and into the capillaries
bio: what are veins
- they have thin cell walls and valves to make sure blood flows in the right direction
- transport blood from the organs to the heart
Bio: what happens in interphase
DNA copies itself ready for mitosis
Bio: what happens in prophase
Nucleus membrane disappears
DNA copies and condences
Bio: what happens in metaphase
Chromosomes and their copies line up in the middle of the cells
Bio: what happens in anaphase
Chromosomes and copies go to the edge of cells
Bio: what happens in telophase
New membranes for around the chromosomes and copies in the corners of the cells
Bio: what happens in cytokenisis
Cell pinches and new membrane forms
bio: what are the steps for the osmosis practical
- Set up 6 boiling tubes, each containing the same volume of one of the sucrose solutions. The 0.0 mol/dm-3 sucrose solution is distilled water. Label the boiling tubes.
- Prepare 6 potato cylinders using a borer and cut the cylinders to the same length. Gently dry each potato cylinder using a paper towel to remove excess liquid and record its mass before placing it into one of the boiling tubes.
- Leave the potato cylinders in the boiling tubes for 40 minutes.
- Remove each potato cylinder from its boiling tube, gently remove excess liquid from the surface of the cylinder with a paper towel and record its mass.
- If possible, repeat the experiment to obtain multiple values of mass change for each solution. Making a series of repeat measurements will enable you to identify and ignore any
anomalous results and to calculate a mean.
bio: in adults what are stem cells used for
to replace dying cells
bio: in embryos what are stem cells used for
they can change into most cell types
bio: what are some uses of stem cells
- stem cell treatments
- plant clones
- theraputic cloning
bio: what is theraputic cloning
create an embryo with the same DNA as the patient and use some of the stem cells for treatment
bio: what are some disadvantages of using stem cells for medical treatments
- viral infections
- ethical beliefs
bio: how is active transport used in the gut
it is used to absorb sugar from the gut into the blood, even when the concentration of sugars in the blood is higher
bio: how is active transport used for minerals in plants
it allows the root hair cells to absorb minerals necisary for cell growth
Bio: What is a valid result of a experiment
Something valid is repeatable and reproducible
- Repeatable = you can redo the tests again and again with the same results
- Reproducible = someone else can redo the tests and get the same results
bio: What makes a prokaryotic cell different from a eukaryotic cell
- They have a single circular strand of DNA rather than a nucleus
- They have no mitochondria and chloroplasts
bio: what does a ribosome do?
Where proteins are made based on DNA
bio: what are proteins made of?
Amino acids
bio: where does the drug Digitalis originate from
Foxglove
bio: where does the drug Aspirin originate from
Willow
bio: what type of drug is Aspirin
used to reduce pain and inflamation
bio: what is transpiration
It is the process of water being lost as vapour through the stomata
bio: how is protein digested in the digestive system
The stomach releases pepsin which converts proteins into amino acids. In addition, the small intestine releases pepsin in its ‘pancreatic juice’ that also releases protiens
bio: how are lipids digested
First they are emulsified by bile, then they are broken down by lipase in the small intestine into fatty acids and glycerol
Bio: what does the vena cava do
It is a vein that delivers de-oxygenated blood from the body to the heart
bio: What does the pulmonary vein do
It delivers oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
bio: what does the aorta do
Oxygenated blood is pumped by the heart to the body
bio: what does the pulmonary artery do
De-oxygenated blood is pumped by the heart to the lungs
Bio: what do the coronary arteries do
The supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle
Bio: explain how the trachea branches into the alveoli
- trachea branch into the bronchi
- bronchi divide into the brunchioles
- bronchioles divide into the alvioli
- the alveoli are surrounded by many capillaries that allow gas exchange
Bio: what is blood
It is a tissue
Bio: what are the 3 types of blood cells
- white blood cells
- red blood cells
- platelets
Bio: what are platelets and what do they do
They are blood cells with no nucleus, they are responsible for blood clotting at the site of wounds
Bio: what are some features of red blood cells
- biconcave shape, large surface area
- haemoglobin, bind with oxygen in the lungs
- no nucleus
- small so they can pass through tiny capillaries
bio: which side of the heart deals with de-oxygenated blood
the right side
bio: which side of the heart deals with oxygenated blood
the left side
bio: in what type of organisms does fermentation occur
- plants
- yeast
bio: what is yeast
it is a single celled fungi
bio: when investigating the rate of enzyme reaction what 4 factors have to be kept constant
- temperature
- PH
- substrate concentration
- enzyme concentration
bio: what breaks down carbohydrates in the human body
Carbohydrase
bio: what is amylase a type of
Carbohydrase
bio: where and how does amylase operate
amylase breaks down starches in the small intestine and mouth
bio: what is translocation
it is the process of food produced by photosynthesis being transported from the leaves to the growing regions of the plant
Bio: when the cover slip is applied to a slide with a subject on it, why is it applied at an angle?
To prevent or to reduce air bubbles forming
Bio: what type of acid is in the stomach
Hydrochloric acid
Bio: an egg joins to a sperm in a process called:
Fertilisation
Bio: what do cells do
They provide structure and carry out functions
Bio: what 3 things do plant cells contain that animals dont and explain them
- cell wall - rigidity
- permanent vacuole - large sack that contains water and has a membraine
- chloroplasts
Bio: what sub cellular structures do bacteria contain and what do they do
- cell wall and membrane for rigidity
- flagella, whip like structures used for movement
- plasmids DNA rings
Bio: why do cells differentiate
They differentiate to acquire different sub cellular structures
Bio: when do plants differentiate
Their cells differentiate over different parts of development
Bio: when do animals deffierentiate
They often differentiate early in development, mostly cells divide to replace tissues.
Bio: what are the parts of sperm cells
- acrosome
- head
- middle section
- flagellum
Bio: what is the function of the head of the sperm cell
Contains the nucleus which contains half the genetic information of an organisim
Bio: what is the function of the acrosome of the sperm cell
The part at the tip of the head that contains the enzyme used to break into the egg
Bio: what is the function of the middle section of sperm cells
It contains many mitochondria used to generate energy for movement
Bio: what is the function of the flagellum of sperm cells
It is the ‘tail’ used for momvement
Bio: what is the function of the axon of a nerve cell
It is the part of the cell that electrical signals travel along
Bio: what is the function of the myelin sheath in a nerve cell
It is ‘insulation’ to stop electrical signals leaking
Bio: what is the function of the dendrites in nerve cells
Branches of nerve cells that connect them to other nerve cells
Bio: what is the function of the synapses in nerve cells
They allow electrical signals to travel between neurones
Bio: what is the function of the mitochondria in muscle cells
They contain many mitochondria to generate energy
Bio: what is the function of the protein fibres in muscle cells
They are the things that are contracted to induce movement
Bio: what are the parts of the neurone cells
- axon
- myelin sheath
- dendrites
Bio: what are the parts of muscle cells
- mitochondria
- protien fibres
Bio: what are the specialisations of the root hair cells
- no chloroplasts
- long projections - to increase surface area for absorption
Bio: what are the specialisations of the xylem
- open ended cells - dead xylem cells are broken so they have open ends to allow water to flow
- lignin strengthens it
Bio: what are the specialisations of the phloem
There are small holes to allow food to move up and down the phloem vessels
Bo: what type of white blood cell releases antibodies
Lymophocytes
Bio: if a boiled potato was used in thee osmosis practical and no net change was recorded why could this have been
Because the semi permeable membrane could have been damaged
Bio: what things affect the rate of transpiration
- temp
- humidity
- air movement
- light intensity, rate of photosynthesis
Bio: what 2 materials can bacteria be grown on
- agar plates
- nutrient broth
Bio: what is a nutrient broth
They contain carbs as an energy source, they also contain minerals and other chemicals
Bio: how do you suggest a bacteria growth has been contaminated
If non investigated bacteria enter the experiment then it has been contaminated
Bio: how is a bacteria growth RP contaminated
If non investigated bacteria enter the experiment then it has been contaminated
Bio: what is aseptic technique
They prevent growth of bacteria
Bio: what are the 4 ways of performing aseptic technique
- flames - inoculation loops (used to transfer bacteria) are passed through flame sterilisation
- boiling - solutions of and agar are boiled to be sterilised
- lids - they stop the air from getting in, it can contain bacteria
- temp - bacteria are kept at a certain temp to reduce the growth of other bacteria
Bio: how can the future population of a group of bacteria be predicted
The current population can be multiplied by a factor of 2 for every mean division time
Bio: what is the order of events for mitosis
- Interphase
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
- Cytocenisis
Bio: What are the layers of a leaf
Bio: what are the stomata closed and opened by
The guard cells
Bio: what do the guard cells do
They open and close the stomata
Bio: what are the 4 non-specific defences of the body
- skin
- stomach acid
- nose
- trachea bronchi mucus - traps pathogens
Check last one
Bio: what are anti-toxins
They are proteins released by the white blood cells that neutralise the toxins that may be released by pathogens
Bio: what are the properties of starch
- insoluble
- storage from of carbs
Bio: what is cellulose used for
- Used to build cell walls
- add strength to cell walls
Bio: what are lipids used for in plants
They are used as storage for glucose in seeds
Bio: what ions are used to make amino acids in plants
nitrates
Bio: what ph is the stomach
It is ph 2
Bio: what does amylase break down
Starch
Bio: what is the process for transpiration
- Root hair cells absorb the water from the soil by osmosis
- Mineral ions are taken up by active transport
- Water and minerals are transported up through the xylem to the leaves
- When the water reaches the leaves most of it evaporates, this is transpiration
bio: what is excretion
it is the removal of waste products of metabolic reactions, CO2 must be excreted because it forms an acidic solution when it dissolves in water
bio: what is the vaccuel in a plant cell filled with
Cell sap
Bio: how often do bacteria divide
As little as 20 mins provided sufficient nutrients and environments
Bio: what type of cultures of microorganisms are needed to test antibiotics
Uncontaminated
Bio: how many genes does one chromosome carry
A large number (chromosome 1 2000-2100)
Bio: in most bodily cells how many chromosomes are found together
2
Bio: what does a cell have to do before it divides
It needs to grow and increase size and number of subcellular structures
Bio: what can bone marrow stem cells become
Most other type of cells, including blood cells
Bio: what can plant meristem be used for
Making plant clones quickly and economically, this can help to save rare species from extinction, and to clone useful crop plants with special features in large volumes
Bio: what are 3 chemicals that are transported into and out of cells by diffusion
- carbon dioxide
- urea
- oxygen
Bio: what are 3 factors that affect the rate of diffusion in cells
- surface area of the membrane
- temp
- concentration gradient
Bio: what are 4 ways multi cellular organisms are optimised for diffusion
- large surface area
- thin membrane, short diffusion path
- (in animals) a efficient blood supply
- (in animals for gas exchange) being ventilated
Bio: where does the energy for active transport come from
respiration
Bio: where is amylase produced
Pancreas and slavery glands
Bio: what is the site of production for protease
Stomach, pancreas and small intestine
Bio: what is the site of production of lipase
Pancreas mouth and stomach
Bio: what do digestive enzymes do
They convert food into small soluable molecules that can be absorbed into the blood
Bio: what are the products of digestion used for
- to build new carbohydrates
- to build new lipids
- to build now protiens
- glucose can be used for respiaration
Bio: is photosynthesis endo or Exothermic
Endothermic
Bio: what is active transport
It is the movement of a substance against the concentration gradient using energy and a carrier protien in the membrane check
Bio: where do you commonly find cellulose
In the cell wall
Bio: what is cellulose
Long chains of glucose
bio: how has microscopy developed over time
from the late 1500s to the late 1600s microscopes were invented and their magnifications grew from ∼3x to 275x, then in the 1800s the resolution of these microscopes increased, electron microscopes were invented which have much greater resolution and magnification
bio: what property of single celled organisms allows sufficient transport of molecules into and out of them
their relatively high surface area to volume ratio
Bio: what are the properties of bile
- it is stored in the gall bladder
- it is alkaline to neutralise the hydrochloric acid from the stomach
Bio: what does the heart do
It pumps blood around the body in a double circulatory system
bio: what controls the natural resting heart rate
There is a set of cells located in the right atrium that act as a pacemaker
Bio: where is the hearts “natural pacemaker”
It is a group of cells located in the right atrium
Bio: what are artificial pacemakers
They are electrical devices used to correct irregularities in the heart rate
Bio: what 4 things make up blood
- plasma
- red and white blood cells
- platlets
Bio: what happens in coronary heart disease
Layers of fatty material build up inside the coronary arteries narrowing them, this reduces blood flow though the arteries resulting in a lack of oxygen for the heart muscle
Bio: what are the 2 treatments for coronary heart disease
- stents
- statins
Bio: how do stents work
They are metal meshes that are inserted to keep the coronary arteries open
Bio: how do statins work
They are widely used to reduce cholesterol levels in the blood which reduces the rate of deposit for fatty materials
Bio: what can happen to heart valves that can stop them from doing what
They can become faulty which prevents them from opening fully or they might develop a leak
Bio: what are the 2 ways that faulty heart valves can be replaced
- mechanical valves
- biological valves
bio: in teh case of heart failure what can be done
a donor heart of heart and lungs can be transplanted
Bio: what can be occasionally be used to keep patients alive while waitinh for a heart transplant
An artificial heart
bio: what is the other use of artificial heart apart from waiting for a donor heart
They can be used to let the heart rest as an aid to recovery
Bio: what is health
It is the state of physical and mental wellbeing
Bio: what can a defect with the immune system mean that an individual is more likely to suffer from
Infectious disease
Bio: in living cells what can viruses be a trigger for
Cancer
Bio: what can severe physical ill health lead to
Depression
Bio: what can immune reactions initially caused by a pathogen cause
Asthma and skin rashes
Bio: what risk factors can lead to an increased rate of disease
- lifestyle aspects
- substances in the individuals environment or body
Bio: what are some causal mechanisms that can cause cardiovascular disease
- smoking
- diet
- exercise
Bio: what are some causal mechanisms that can cause type 2 diebeties
Obesity
Bio: what is a causal mechanism that can cause both affected brain function and liver function
alchohol
Bio: what is a causal mechanism that can cause lung disease and lung cancer
smoking
Bio: what are some things people can intake that can affect unborn babies
- alcohol
- smoking
Bio: what are some causal mechanisms that can cause cancer
- carcinogens
- ionising radiation (which is a carcinogen)
Bio: what can cause an onset of disease
An interaction of factors
Bio: what is cancer
a change in the cells that lead to uncontrolled cell division
Bio: what are malignant tumors
They are tumors that are cancers, they invade neighbouring cells and tissues and spread to different parts of the body through the blood where they form secondary tumors
Bio: what are the factors that can affect the chance of getting cancer
- Lifestyle factors
- Genetic factors
Bio: in a plant heat is a leaf
It is an organ
Bio: in a plant what does the organ system that transports substances around that plant consist of
- roots
- stem
- leaves
Bio: what are the xylem adapted for the transport of
water
Bio: what do the stomata and guard cells contorol
Gass exchange and water loss
Bio: what are the phloem cells made of (more structure and features)
Tubes of elongated cells, cell sap can move from one phloem cell to the next through pores in the end walls
Bio: what is a pathogen
It is a microorganism that causes infectious disease
Bio: what do bacteria and viruses do inside the body
They can reproduce rapidly
Bio: what can bacteria produce that might make us feel ill and that can damage tissues
poisons (toxins)
Bio: what is an example of a disease caused by a protist
malaria
Bio: what is malaria
It is a disease that causes episodes of fever and can be fatal
Bio: how is the spread of malaria prevented
By preventing the vectors, mosquitoes, from breeding and by using mosquito nets to avoid being bitten
Bio: what does the malaria protists life cycle include
The mosquito
Bio: what are 2 diseases caused by bacteria
- salmonella
- gonorrhoea
Bio: what symptoms does salmonella cause
- vomiting
- diarrhoea
- fever
- abdominal pain
All caused by the toxins secreted by the bacteria
Bio: how do people get salmonella
By eating unhygienically prepared food
Bio: how do we stop the spread of salmonalla
By vaccinating some poultry (in the UK) to control the spread
Bio: what are the symptoms of gonorrhoea
- discharge from penis or vagina
- pain when urinating
Bio: how is gonorrhoea prevented
It is caused by a bacteria and was easily treated by by penicilin until resistant strains appeared, its spread can be controlled by treatment with antibiotics and by barrier methods of contraception like a condom
Bio: what are 3 examples of viruses
- measles
- HIV
- tobacco mosaic virus
Bio: what are the symptoms of measels
It is a serious condition that can be fatal if complications arrise, its symptoms are of fevers and red skin
Bio: what are the symptoms of HIV
Initially it causes a flu like illness, it attacks the bodies immune cells and, in the late stage infection, AIDS, makes them so weak that they cannot defend against other infections or cancer
Bio: how is HIV spread
sexual contact of exchange of bodily fluids such as blood which occurs when people share needles
Bio: how is measles spread
By inhalation of droplets form sneezes and coughs
Bio: how is measles prevented
It is vaccinated against in kids
Bio: how is HIV prevented and treated
It can only be controlled by antiretroviral drugs
Bio: why can it be difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses
Because the drugs can also damage the bodies tissues
Bio: how can plant diseased be detected
- stunted growth
- spots on leaves
- areas of decay
- growths
- malformed stems or leaves
- discoloration
- presence of pests
Bio: what is decay in plants also called
rot
Bio: how can plant diseases be identified
- reference to gardening manual or website
- taking infected plants to a lab to identify the pathogen
- using test kits
Bio: what type of pathogen is TMV
Tobbaco mosaic virus
Bio: what type of pathogen is rose black spot
fungi
Bio: what are the 3 types of plant disease that you must know
- tobbaco mosaic virus
- black spot
- aphids
Bio: what can the glucose in photosynthesis be used for
- respiration
- making fat or oil for storage
- to produce cellulose to strengthen cell walls
- used to produce amino acids for protein synthesis
Bio: what does respiration supply
All of the energy needed for living processes
Bio: what 3 things do organisms need energy for
- chemical reactions to build larger molecules
- movement
- keeping warm
Bio: what is the equation of anaerobic respiration in plants
Glucose -> ethanol + carbon dioxide
Bio: what process provides all energy for living processes
respiration
Bio: what does metabolism include
- conversion of glucose to starch
- formation of lipid molecules from a molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acids
- the use of glucose and nitrate ions to form amino acids
- respiration
- breakdown of excess proteins to form urea
Bio: what are lipid molecules formed from
A molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acids
Bio: what is used to form amino acids and what do they then go on to form
Glucose and nitrate ions, they then go on to form proteins
Bio: what is the inverse square law
Light intensity is inversely proportionally to distance squared (or light intercity is directly proportional to 1/distance squared) check
Bio: what is the energy transferred by respiration used for by an organism(continuous process)
Metabolisim that synthesises new molecules check
Bio: who discovered penicillin and from what
Alexander Fleming - from the penicillium mould
Bio: traditionally where do drugs come from
Plants and microorganisms
Bio: how are most new drugs made in the pharmaceutical industry
They are synthesised by chemicals, however as traditionally, the starting point for these chemicals may still be a chemical steaming from a plant
Bio: what are new drugs tested for
- toxicity
- efficacy
- dose
Bio: how is preclinical testing done
It is done in a lab using cells tissues and live animals
Bio: what has to happen to new medical drugs before being used
They must be trialled to make sure that they are safe and effective
Bio: what are monoclonal antibodies produced from
A single clone of cells
Bio: what can monoclonal antibodies target, due to what?
- a specific chemical or specific cells
- specificity to an antigen
Bio: how are monoclonal antibodies produced
- Mouse lymphocytes are stimulated to make a particular antibody.
- The lymphocytes are combined with a specific type of tumor cells to make a cell called a hybridoma cell
- The hybridoma cell can divide to the antibody
- Single celled hybridoma cells are cloned to make many identical cells that all produce the same antibody. A large amount of that antibody can be collected and purified
Bio: what is made when a mouse lymphocytes is combined with a particular kind of tumor cell
A hybridoma cell
Bio: how are monoclonal antibodies used for diagnosis
They are used for diagnosis in pregnancy tests
Bio: how are monoclonal antibodies used in labs
To measure the level of hormones and other chemicals in blood, or to detect pathogens
Bio: how are monoclonal antibodies used in research
To locate or identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue by binding to them with a fluorescent dye
Bio: how are monoclonal antibodies used for the treatment of cancer
Monoclonal antibodies can be bound to a radioactive substance, a toxic drug of chemical which stops cells from dividing, it delivers the substance to the cancer cells without harming other cells in the body
Bio: what do monoclonal antibodies have more of than expected and what
They have more side effects than were expected
Bio: were monoclonal antibodies as widely used as expected
No they are not
Bio: why is it hard to investigate the brain
Because of its complexity
Bio: optimal ph for analyse
Ph 7
Bio: what are the types of pathogen that can be injected during vaccinations
- dead pathogen
- inactive (live but don’t cause disease)
- sub unit, uses specific parts of a pathogen to stimulate responce
- mRNA - your body produces the pathogen and then you become immune
Bio: what is an antibody specific to
An antigen
Bio: what is the graph of first an second exposure of antigen concentration
Bio: what are benign tumors
They are growths of abnormal cells which are contained in one area, usually within a membrane, they do no invade other parts of the body
Bio: what are causes of ill health
- Disease, both communicable and non
- diet
- stress
- life situations
