ADV INFO Society and Social Changes late 1800s Flashcards
what were the two groups of the upper classes
the landed aristocracy and the landed gentry
who dominated the House of Lords
the powerful aristocracy
What did the gentry and middle class try to do
emulate the upper classes, wanting their children to marry into the aristocracy (Pride and Prejudice)
How many people were in the aristocracy
About 800
How many people were in the gentry
about 3000
What was the annual income of the Aristocracy
generally, over £10,000, although the Duke Of Northumberland’s was £130,000
what was the annual income of the gentry
1000-10,000
where was the occupation of the ruling class best seen
land ownership
What did someone require to be considered genuinely middle class
a minimum annual income of £100
how did the middle class look up to the upper classes
in terms of their fashions, manners and lifestyle
Who was in the highest level of the middle class
rich industrialists, bankers, financiers and merchants
Who was in the second level of the middle class
richer clergy, doctors, uni professors, public school headmasters
who was in the third level of the middle class
yeoman farmers, lawyers and mill manager
who was in the bottom level of the middle class
teachers and clerks
What happened to the real wages of the middle class between 1851 and 1871
they grew strongly due to prices being pushed down by cheap imports and falling prices of industrial and manufactured goods.
What happened to the number of people in the working class
it grew rapidly, at a rate faster than the general population
how did the middle class separate themselves from the poor
moving south and west out of city centres and into the suburbs
What become a mainstay of the middle-class families’ budget
the railway season ticket
what book helped women with coping with the new challenges of managing and paying servants
Mrs Beeton’s The Book of Household Management
Where did affluent middle-class students go to school
Eton and Westminster
what was the biggest split in the working class
between unskilled workers and skilled workers
what were skilled workers called
artisans
what did the skilled working classes join
friendly societies and trade unions
what were less-skilled workers liable to
being laid off when there was an economic downturn or drop in demand
What threatened the position of the artisans
the development of technology and processes of mass production
Who was particularly affected by the Great Depression after 1873
the rural poor
what reduced the demand for agricultural workers
agricultural mechanisation and the advent of high farming
what was changed in 1834
the poor law
what did the change to the poor law in 1834 do
required someone to be a resident in a parish for five years to be eligible for poor relief
What did the changes to the poor law lead to
landowners restricting the amount of land available for housing, creating ‘closed villages’
What did the working classes benefit from
falling prices, especially for food
what meant that working-class life was still bad
the instability of work and housing
what statistics were worrying for the working class
infant mortality was high and life expectancy was low
When did working-class men gain the vote
1884
when were working-class constituencies created
1885
Why did Scotland stand out
it had a more developed education system and a higher literacy rate
Where had developed industrially
northern England, the Midlands and south wales
what industries boomed in the North, Midlands and S. Wales
production of cotton, coal, iron and steel, as well the transport industries of railways and shipbuilding.
How did London stand out
in terms of the size of its population and as a major international centre of commerce, as well as being the centre of government
How did the South East and South West remain
largely agricultural
which area was over-represented in Parliament
the south-east
How did housing compare between the north and the south h
housing in the north was better for workers than in the south and rents were lower
what was the price of commodities like in the north
lower than that in the south with items like coal
where were some of the worst conditions
the back-to-back housing in Yorkshire
Where were the worst slums
London which had the highest rents and highest coal prices
Where was noted for having good housing
Nottingham had much better housing for the working classes than other major cities
Who enjoyed a lot of prosperity during the period
the top of society, and to a degree the middle class
What did the upper classes do during easter
balls, theatres, dinner parties, riding and driving in Hyde Park, exhibitions and picnics
what did the upper classes do in the summer
holidays by the sea or abroad
what did the upper classes do in August
shooting
what did the upper classes do in Winter
hunting
What happened to the number of people in the service sector
750,000 in 1851 to 1,200,000 in 1871
what did the upper classes start to keep more of
horses and carriages
what happened to the usage of railways
it grew rapidly
what became seen as a key sign of prosperity
taking an annual holiday
how did the working class experience prosperity
developments in technology and manufacturing gave them access to some goods that had previously been the reserve of the wealthy (the creation of the sewing machine)
Who was Canon Girdlestone
Vicar of Halberton in Devon
what did canon girdlestone say
‘the labourers did not live in the proper sense of the word, they merely didn’t die’
What was the issue with households with one individual working
a sole wage earner would not earn enough to provide all the necessities of life for a family
what was the working-class diet made up of
potatoes and bread
what was rife in Victorian England among the working class looking to make money
prostitution and petty crime
what was the money made by successful prostitutes like in comparison to other workers
they could earn £2 a week, which was more than twice the average earnings of a coalminer
what happened at hartley colliery in Northumberland
204 men were entombed when the beam of the pumping engine snapped and fell down the single shaft
what happened between 1860 and 1897 to miners
24,000 men died in mining accidents
What was the issue with matchmaking
the phosphorus fumes ate away at the workers’ teeth and jawbone, leading to ‘phossy jaw’
what diseases did agricultural workers suffer from
rheumatism and bronchitis
how much did workers spend on rent
between a quarter and half of their wages
what was the issue of housing in the countryside
there was a limited supply
what was the issue with the government’s attempts to improve housing
they were far too expensive for the poorest
what did the government successfully do with housing
slums were scarcer, and the housing was of much better quality with sinks and outdoor toilets
what were the living conditions of the poor like
there was mass overcrowding, poor sanitation, poorly built accommodation, including back to back housing, outbreaks of disease like cholera, and buildings in a very poor state of repair
why did the working classes prefer the slums
they did not like the imposed standards of middle-class morals of the new modal housing developments.
what were the housing statistics in Glasgow
5% of the Glasgow population also had a lodger
what was common in both industry and in agriculture
child labour
what was there increasing amounts of legislation to try and limit
the long hours of work
what work was dangerous for children
extreme heat working in the potteries, moving huge weights in the brickyards, inhaling soot while cleaning chimneys, spending hours in the cold and wet in the field scaring birds or working as part of an agricultural ‘gang’.
what was the issue with child labour
it kept adult wages down, denied thousands of children the chance of an education and cause serious long-term damage to their health
who had no state support
the old, the ill or the unemployed
what did the poor law do
it raised money locally through rates to support the poor who could not support themselves
what were rates
local taxes are usually calculated on the basis of the value of a person’s property or dwelling.
when was the poor law amended
1834
what did the amendment to the poor law do
shifted responsibility from individual parishes to 600 poor law unions
where was poor relief mainly offered through
the workhouse
what did a man accept if he applied for poor relief?
he had to accept that he and his family would be placed in a workhouse, buildings designed to hold those who could not support themselves. A person entering the workhouse was, in effect, giving up the power to support their own family
Where was the new poor law designed for
the agricultural south
where did the new poor law face resistance from
the industrial north
how could it be argued that the working class had a better standard of living
they had higher real wages
how could it be argued that the working classes had a bad standard of living
conditions were terrible and poverty was at a level hard to conceive in modern Britain.
what was being written at the time
Das Kapital by Karl Marx in London
What did many victorian Britons believe about the working classes
that should support themselves and not be reliant on ratepayers, charity or the government.
Who predicted dire consequences if the population was allowed to grow unchecked
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
What encouraged population growth and caused greater misery for the poor
support from poor relief, and cheap food thanks to the repealing of the corn laws
what books are associated with the idea of self-help
Self-Help (1859) and Thrift (1875)
who wrote self-help and thrift
Samuel Smiles
what were friendly societies
organisations made up of workers who paid a subscription
what did members of a friendly society receive
benefit payments from the society if they were unemployed or sick, whilst also benefitting from friendly societies paying the funeral costs of members
What was the government’s reaction to the friendly societies
several acts of parliament were passed to ensure that the friendly societies were tightly regulated by the law
how was friendly societies’ money protected
the 1855 friendly societies act
why did friendly societies gain government backing
they largely fitted into the political thinking of the time
what was the membership of friendly societies made up of
the wealthier upper echelons of the working classes and that many of the working classes did not qualify to join a friendly society
why could many members of the working class not join a friendly society
they lacked the skills and training and could not afford weekly contributions
what was the number of consumer cooperatives
in 1851 there were about 140, increasing to over 1200 by 1875
When did cooperatives become nationally coordinated
1863 in England and 1868 in Scotland
what is a trade union
an organisation of workers that aims to maintain or improve pay and conditions of employment of the workers
who had the trade unions faced opposition from
both employers and the government
what new type of union started to emerge
the new model unions
what were the first new model union
the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, Machinists, Smiths, Millwrights and Pattern-Makers (ASE)
how were the new model union different to their predecessors
they were less radical than their predecessors and did not want to bring about socialist ideals or bring down the system of ownership or government. They sought respectability and had moderate policies on striking
what were the new model unions run like
they had a full-time secretary and headquarters, were highly selective in who they admitted (health, age, years of experience, work skills and reputation) and charged a high subscription of 5d. a week that would insure against sickness, pay pensions and funeral expenses and give emigration grants.
How is the new moderate position of the model unions shown
the trade councils in the 1860s, most notably the London Trades Council (the junta): the secretaries of the major new model unions would coordinate policy across the country, not to cause maximum disruption, but to minimise strikes and settle disputes through negotiation or arbitration.
how many members did the ASE have
33,000 members and 308 branches by 1867
what issues did the new model unions face
- many in trade unionism said they were too moderate
- they only covered the elites of the working classes, causing a greater gulf between the elite artisans and the unskilled workers
- the new model unions put a great deal of effort into trying to protect their members’ jobs and pay from encroachment by less-skilled workers
what scandal did the unions face in the 1860s
the Sheffield outrages
what were the Sheffield outrages
Non-unionists in the cutlery trade were being intimidated and threatened by members of the cutlery makers’ trade unions.
what was the intimidation at the Sheffield Outrages
‘rattening’, which was stealing the tools of a blackleg (someone who crossed a picket line and did the work of striking trade union members). Matters came to a head when the home of a blackleg was blown up
When was the Hornby v Close
1867
what was Hornby v Close about
the Bradford Boilermakers had £24 stolen out of their fund box. They believed their funds were protected by the Friendly Societies Act of 1855, but it was judged that trade unions were not covered by the legislation
What did the judgement in Hornby v Close mean
trade unions’ funds were not secure - a potential threat to the funds and thus the unions were themselves
What was set up to inquire about the trade union movement
a royal commission
what did the TU commission publish
a largely positive report in 1867 suggesting that this was possible.
What met for the first time in 1868
the trade union congress
how many delegates were at the TUC
34 delegates representing 100,000 members; by 1875 there were 153 delegates representing 1 million members
What was set up in 1871
the TUC parliamentary committee
why was the TUC parliamentary committee set up to do
further union interests
who was the sec of the TUC P Committee
Henry Broadhurst, a moderate liberal
What was passed in 1871
the trade union act
what did the trade union act do
gave trade unions the right to register under the 1855 friendly society act and legal acceptance
what was the second act passed in 1871
the criminal law amendment act
what did the criminal law amendment act aim to do
aimed at preventing repeats of the Sheffield Outrages, A 3-month prison sentence for anyone who committed ‘any form of molesting or intimidation’ during a strike. The rather vague phrasing of this act meant that it threatened the act of picketing
what is an example of the criminal law amendment act in action
in 1873, seven wives of striking workers were convicted for having shouted insults at blacklegs. This act and its consequences led to many workers withdrawing support from the Liberals
what was passed in 1875
the conspiracy and protection of property act
what did the conspiracy and protection of property act do
It allowed non-violent picketing and meant striking was a potent weapon. Through trade union influence could have been expected to grow at this point, the economic depression meant that trade unions, particularly in the agricultural sector, were not in a strong position
What appeared in the 1880s in trade unionism
the new unions
what were the new unions
unions for the unskilled workers
what were the tactics of the new unions like
far more militant than traditional unions
what can the new unions be seen as
a symbol of social change and political change
Who ran schools in the 1850s and 1860s
private individuals, companies and religious groups
what did the Newcastle commission report in 1861
15% of the population received some sort of education
what were the three types of secondary schools
public schools, grammar schools, private schools
what is an example of public schools
Eton, Harrow, Westminster
what elementary schools were there
voluntary schools
what were the three basic schools
dame schools, charity (factory and ragged) schools, the church of England schools
when was the first piece of major action taken on education
1862
what happened in 1862 to education
Robert Lowe introduced payment by results. Schools were inspected and the pupils were tested in reading, writing and arithmetic. The results would determine the grant a school received and the teacher’s wages. This led to an education based on cramming and reciting lists of facts learned by heart so they could be reproduced in the tests
who was Robert Lowe
the head of the education department in the Liberal Government
What education act passed in 1870
forster’s education act
What did Forster’s education act do
it allowed both Anglican and nonconformist voluntary schools to continue. New boards were set up to organise ‘board schools’ for children aged 5 to 12 where no school existed. These schools received a government grant and collected a special local rate
what was passed in 1876
a further education act by Disraeli’s government
what did Disraeli’s new education act in 1876 do
set up local committees to encourage school attendance and remind parents of their responsibility in ensuring the instruction of their children.
what education act passed in 1880
Mundella’s education act
what did Mundella’s education act do
made education compulsory for five to ten-year-olds. Board and voluntary schools had a fee of about 3d. per child per week.
what was the result of Mundella’s act
the number of children receiving an elementary education doubled from about 1.5 million in 1870 to about 3 million in 1880
what were the reasons for the 1870- education act
- gladstone’s belief in the equality of opportunity
- Britain was behind Prussia and America in terms of education
- The economy was booming, so money was available
- Pressure from campaigners such as Joe Chamberlain
- Rapid population growth
- 1867 reform act increased the need for education
why can the conservatives reform be seen as the work of individual ministers
Disraeli and the conservatives made no mention of social reform in the 1880 election campaign, despite their seeming success in the area
what were the Liberal social reforms based on
the idea of self-help
how can self-help be seen in education
a completely new system was not created, but rather a relatively cheap system was added to plug any holes that existed
what did Edwin Chadwick write about
the terrible conditions in the 1840s in the poor areas of towns and cities
how many people died of cholera in 1849-50
50,000
what did Dr John Snow find out in 1854
the Broad Street pump was the cause of a local cholera epidemic and that cholera was carried in water
what piece of public health, legislation was seen as a disappointment
the public health act (1872)
what removed the weaknesses of the Public Health Act 1872
the Conservative public health act
when was the conservative public health act
1875
what did the Con Public Health Act 1875 do
gave clear guidance on the responsibilities of local authorities and made these duties compulsory. Local authorities had to ensure there was adequate water supply, drainage and sewage systems. Contaminated food was to be sought out and destroyed and cases of infectious disease were to be reported to the Medical Officer.
why was the Con Public Health Act 1875 successful
the measures were compulsory and were a major step forward in terms of gov intervention to bring about social change
What passed additionally in 1875 but was not successful
the artisans’ dwelling act
why was the artisans’ dwelling act 1875 not successful
it made no compulsory stipulations
what did the artisans’ dwelling act do
the act allowed local authorities to clear slum housing when there were unsanitary properties and replace them with better-built modern accommodation
what set out very tight regulations on the preparation and adulteration of food
the sale of food and drugs act (1875)
what helped to undermine aristocratic dominance and aid social mobility
the civil service reform act (1871)
what was passed in 1878
the factory and workshops act
what did the factory and workshops act do
it made regulations of houses and workshops employing fewer than 50 people rigorous. The act brought these businesses under a government inspectorate, which proved more effective than inspection by local authorities.
who was a campaigner about merchant ships
Samuel Plimsoll
what did Plimsoll call for
regulations on the repair and loading of merchant ships
what formalised Plimsoll’s demands
the merchant shipping act (1876)
what did the merchant shipping act do
it included the regulation of having to draw a ‘Plimsoll line’ on merchant ships to show their maximum load
what was the issue with the merchant shipping act
it was not effective until 1890, because until then the height of the line was determined by the ship-owner
