A&P Final Exam Flashcards
Homeostasis
Existence of a stable internal state. To survive every organism must maintain this
Negative feedback loop
This is the body’s automatic response to correct a situation. (thermoregulation)
-opposes stimulus
Positive feedback loop
Initial stimulus produces a response that reinforces the stimulus (blood clotting & child birth)
Metabolism
Refers to all of the the chemical operations that take place in the body
Anatomical postion
hands at sides, palms forward, feet together
Supine
person lying face up
Prone
Person lying face down
Distal
away from the attached base
Proximal
Toward the attached base
Anatomical planes
transverse, sagital, midsagital, coronal (frontal)
Vertebral sections
Cervicle(7), thoracic(12), lumbar(5), sacral(5 fused), coccyx(3-5 fused)
Anatomical quadrants (and what organs are in each)
Right upper- Liver, Gallbladder, Large & small intestine
left upper- Stomach, spleen
right lower- Appendix
left lower- Urinary bladder
Atom
smallest unit of matter
Molecule
group of atoms bonded together
Element
simple substance that can cannot be broken down into smaller parts
Ion
An atom with an electrical charge
Proton
subatomic particle in the nuclei with a positive charge
Neutron
Subatomic particle with no charge found in the nuclei
Electron
Negatively charged subatomic particle. Form electron cloud
Polysaccharide
Made up of more than 2 monosaccharides
Starches, glycogen, cellulose
Monosaccharides
-Most simplest form of sugar
-glucose, fructose, galactose
ATP
-AdenosineTriPhosphate
-ADP+P
-Energy currency
ADP
-Adenosinediphosphate
-AMP+Phosphate
-ATP —>ADP+P by hydrolysis = energy production
- ADP+P —>ATP by phosphorylation
Cytoskeleton
Made up of microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules
Provides stregnth and support; enables movement of cell structures and materials
Endoskeleton
-supports the cells just like a skeletal system supports the body of an organism.
-endomembrane system comprises the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, plasma membrane, and lysosome.
Cilia
Membrane extensions that contain microtubules
Move materials over surface of cell
Vesicles
-a vesicle is a structure within or outside a cell, consisting of liquid or cytoplasm enclosed by a lipid bilayer
Flagella
Long, whip-like filament that moves cell through fluid
In humans only,found in sperm cells
Golgi Appartus
Stacks of flattened memebranes that contain chambers
Stores, alters, packages secretory products
form lysosomes
Cell Membrane
Lipid bilayers
Provides isolation, protection, sensitivity and support; controls ent/exit or materials
Nucleus
Contains DNA, nucleotids, enzymes and proteins
Control metabolism; stores and processes genetic information; controls protein synthesis
Mitochondria
Double memebrane with inner folds
95% of ATP produced
POWERHOUSE
Ribosomes
Free and fixed
Protein synthesis
Reason why rough ER only packages proteins (synthesis takes place in ribosomes)
Lysosomes
Vesicles that contain powerful digestive enzymes
remove damaged organelles or pathogens within cells
Osmosis
Diffusion of water from low to high solute concentration
Diffusion
Movement of molecules from high to low concentration of solutes
Facilitated diffusion
Carrier proteins passively transport solutes down a concentration gradient
Stratified epithelium
several layers of cells
Cuboidal
layer(s) of cubed shaped cells
nucleus is found in center of cell
Columnar
Layer of tall cells that fit closely together
Squamous
layer of flattened cells
Connective tissue
most diverse tissue of the body
-Connective tissue proper (loose/dense)
-Fluid connective tissue (blood/lymph)
-Supporting connective tissue (cartilage/bone)
Mucosa tissue
soft tissue that lines the body’s canals and organs in the digestive, respiratory and reproductive systems
Epithelial tissue
covers the surface of the body, inside and out; produce glandular secretions
Involuntary muscles
Muscles in the body whose contraction is controlled by the autonomic nervous system
-smooth muscle
-cardiac
-respiratory muscles (diaphragm)
Voluntary muscles
Muscles that you have control of contracting / Striated
Calcium
Most abundant mineral in the human body; roughly 99% of it is located in the skeleton. the skeleton acts as a calcium reserve
Potassium
Important for proper membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction
Diaphysis
shaft of a long bone
Epiphyses
expanded ends of long bones
Osteoclasts
giant cells with 50 or more nuclei; dissolve bony matrix to release stored minerals through osteolysis
Osteocyte
mature bone cells, maintain normal bone structure by recycling calcium salts, assist in repairs
Osteoblasts
produce new bone in process called osteogenesis
Bone Marrow
Loose connective tissue found in the center of most bones, synthesizes blood cells.
cartilage
Supporting connective tissue
Fibrocartilage - in between vertebrae
hyaline - (Most common) sternum and ends of long bones
elastic - outer ear
Axial Skeleton
80 bones.
Skull, vertebral column, and rig cage
Appendicular skeleton
-126 bones
-bones of the upper and lower limbs (arms, forearms, wrist, hands, thigh, leg, ankle, foot)
-pectoral girdle (scapula, clavicle)
-pelvic girdle (coxae)
joint types
-synarthrosis (immovable, fibrous)
-amphiarthrosis (slightly moveable, cartilaginous)
-diarthrosis (freely moveable, synovial)
synovial joints
-hinge: 1 bone moves, other is stationary (elbow)
-saddle joint: angular movement, greater than condyloid (Thumb)
-Gliding: gliding movement (distal phalanges)
-pivot: rotational movement (atlas)
-condyloid: angular movement along two axes (wrist)
-ball and socket: greatest range of motion, all directions (hip)
point of origin
is the site where bone and muscle are attached, but do not move during contraction. The origin is typically the tissues’ proximal attachment, the one closest to the torso.
point of insertion
is the site where bone and muscle are attached and move during contraction. The origin of insertion of muscles is typically the tissues’ distal attachment, the one furthest from the torso. As the muscle contracts, the insertion and connected bone move closer to the body.
intercalated discs
-found in cardiac muscle
-connect adjacent cardiac muscle cells
-The three types of cell junction recognised as making up an intercalated disc are: desmosomes, fascia adherens junctions, and gap junctions; Fascia adherens are anchoring sites for actin, and connect to the closest sarcomere.
actin
-protein of thin filaments in myofibril
-attach to myosin (thick filaments) at cross bridge in sarcomere to perform contraction
-found in I band of sarcomere
myosin
-protein of thick filament in myofirbil
-attach to actin in sarcomere at cross bridge to perform contraction
-found in dark A band of sarcomere with thin filaments
Myofibrils
-cylindrical structure made of organized collections of myofilaments in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells
-Bundles of thick and thin myofilaments (consist of proteins actin and myosin) responsible for muscle fiber contraction
Sarcomeres
an organization of myofilaments into repeating functional units. They are the smallest functional unit of the muscle fiber. Interactions between the thick and thin filaments of these are responsible for muscle contractions.
Striations (muscle striations)
-the arrangement of thick and thin filaments within a sarcomere produces a banded appearance
-All the myofibrils are arranged parallel to the long axis of the cell, and their sarcomere’s lie side by side
-As a result, the entire muscle fiber has a striated appearance.
Melanin
yellow brown pigment produced by the melanocytes of the skin. It helps prevent skin damage by absorbing UV radiation before it reaches the deep layers of the epidermis and dermis.
Keratin
-produced from keranocytes in stratum grainulosum where stem cell division stops
-also forms the basic structure of hair, calluses, and nails.
Sebaceous Gland
(oil glands) holocrine glands that discharge an oily lipid secretion (sebum) into hair follicles or, in some cases, onto the skin.
Layers of the Skin (interior to exterior)
(interior to exterior) SUBCUTANEOUS; DERMIS (reticular layer, papillary layer); EPIDERMIS (Stratum germinativum, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum {thick skin only}, stratum corneum).
Somatic Nervous System
one of the two efferent divisions of the peripheral nervous system. Provides control over skeletal muscle contractions.
Autonomic Nervous System
aka visceral motor system, provides automatic involuntary regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glandular secretions, and adipose tissue. Includes sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
Sympathetic Nervous System
division of ANS. responsible for “fight or flight” reactions. Primarily concerned with the elevation of metabolic rate and increased alertness. (Ex. increased heart rate/breathing ability/ improve eyesight, slow digestion)
Parasympathetic Nervous System
division of ANS. Generally responsible for activities that conserve energy and lower the metabolic rate “feed and breed”; also called craniosacral division. (ex. sexual arousal, salivation, urination, digestion)
Myelin
insulating sheath around an axon consisting of multiple layers of glial cell membrane; significantly increases conduction rate along the axon.
Corpus Callosum
a large bundle of more than 200 million myelinated nerve fibers that connect the two brain hemispheres, permitting communication between the right and left sides of the brain.
Cranial Nerves and basic function
12 pairs of cranial nerves connect to brain.
NI. Olfactory nerves (sense of smell)
NII. Optic nerves (visual info from the eyes)
NIII. Oculomotor nerves (move eyeball/ control amount of light that enters eye)
NIV. Trochlear nerves (pulley shaped; attaches to eyeball)
NV. Trigeminal nerves (largest; provide sensory info from head/ face; motor control of chewing muscles)
NVI. Abducen nerves (abducts the eyeball, allows for lateral movement)
NVII. Facial nerves (deep pressure sense, taste, facial expressions)
NVIII. Vestibulocochlear nerves (monitor sensory receptors of inner ear)
NIX. Glossopharyngeal Nerves (taste sensations from posterior third of tongue)
NX. Vagus nerves (sensory info vital to autonomic control of visceral function)
NXI. Accessory Nerves (innervate structures of the neck and back)
NXII. Hypoglossal nerves (voluntary control over skeletal muscles of tongue)
Dorsal Column Tract
-the area of vibration sensation, proprioception, and two-point discrimination
-sensory input
Parts of Brain and their responsibility
-Cerebrum (conscious thought and intellectual functions originate)
-Diencephalon (contains: thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal gland, switching and relay centers that integrate conscious and unconscious sensory information and motor commands)
-Thalamus (brain’s sensory switchboard (sorting center)
located on top of the brainstem
directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex
transmits and replies to the cerebellum and medulla)
-Midbrain (contains various nuclei and bundles of ascending and descending nerve fibers. Visual and auditory, sleep and wake cycles).
Pons (links the cerebellum with the midbrain, diencephalon, cerebrum, and spinal cord).
Medulla Oblongata (regulate vital autonomic functions including cardiovascular and respiratory systems).
Cerebellum (autonomic processing center. adjusts the postural muscles of the body to maintain balance and programming and fine-tuning movements controlled at the conscious and subconscious levels).
Ventral Column Tract
- Located in the anterior funiculus
- Delivers poorly localized sensations of touch, pressure, pain and temp to primary sensory cortex.
-Delivers sensory input to thalamus
-Motor
Pancreas
- Lies in the J-shaped loop between the stomach and proximal portion of the small intestine.
- Exocrine cells make digestive enzymes
- Endocrine cells make glucagon and insulin.
Hypothalamus
- Lies inferior to the third ventricle, contains important control and integrative centers in addition to those associated with the limbic system.
- Functions are
1. subconscious control of skeletal muscle contractions associated with rage, pleasure, pain and sexual arousal;
2. Adjusting activities of the pons and medulla oblongata(HR, BP, respiration, digestive functions)
3. Coordinating activities of the nervous and endocrine systems.
4. Secreting hormones - ADH
- Oxytocin
5. Producing behavioral drives(hunger and thirst)
6. Coordinating voluntary and autonomic functions
7. Regulating body temp
8. Coordinating daily cycles of activity
Thyroid
- Lies anterior to the trachea and inferior to the thyroid cartilage
- Two lobes united by a slender connection the isthmus.
- Contains numerous thyroid follicles.
- Stimulated by TSH
- Colloid fluid contains numerous proteins and thyroid hormones.
T4
T3
Pituitary Gland
- Anterior Pituitary Gland
Produces 7 hormones: ACTH, TSH, GH, PRL, FSH, LH, MSH. - Posterior Pituitary gland
releases Oxytocin and ADH.
Thymus Gland
- Lies in the mediastinum posterior to the sternum.
- Site of T cell production and maturation.
Antidiuretic Hormone(ADH)
- Synthesized in the hypothalamus, secreted at the posterior pituitary.
- Causes water retention at the kidneys and an elevation of blood pressure.
Structures of the Eye
- Accessory structures:
Eyelids
Superficial epithelium
Production secretion and removal of tears - Fibrous tunic
Sclera
Cornea - Vascular tunic
Blood vessels
Lymphatic vessels
Intrinsic eye muscles
Iris
Pupil - Neural tunic (retina)
Innermost layer contains:
-Pigmented Part (outer layer)
Absorbs light after it passes through the neural part
-Neural part (inner layer)
Photoreceptors
Blood vessels
Supporting cells and neurons
Inner ear
- Senses of equilibrium and hearing provided here.
- Protected by the bony labyrinth
-Surrounds the membranous labyrinth
–Filled with endolymph
–Perilymph in between bony and membranous labyrinth. - Vestibule pair of membranous sacs
-Saccule
-Utricle - Semicircular canals enclose semicircular ducts
-Canals called vestibular complex - Cochlea
-Contains cochlear ducts of membranous labyrinth.
Middle ear
- AKA Tympanic cavity
- Air filled cavity separated from external ear by tympanum.
- Communicates with nasopharynx
-Connected by auditory tube - Contains auditory ossicles
-Malleus
-Incus
-Stapes
External ear
- Auricle (pinna)
-Surrounds entrance to the external acoustic canal(ear canal)
–Ear canal has ceruminous glands (ear wax) - Ends at the tympanic membrane.
Flow of blood through the heart
- unoxygenated blood through the sup/inf vena cava
- Into right atrium
- tricuspid valve
- Into right ventricle
- Pulmonary semilunar valve
- Pulmonary arteries
- Pulmonary veins
- Left atrium
- bicuspid(mitral) valve
- Left ventricle
- Aortic semilunar valve
- aorta
Interventricular Septum
Divide the two ventricles
Electrical pathway through the heart
- SA node
- Internodal pathways
- AV node
- Bundle of His
- Bundle branches
- Purkinje fibers
Coronary Arteries and which sections of the heart get blood from which artery
- RCA
-Supplies
–Right atruim and both ventricles.
-Forms
–Marginal and posterior interventricular branches. - LCA
-Supplies
–Left atrium and ventricle, interventricular septum.
-Forms
–Circumflex and anterior & posterior interventricular branches
Eosinophil
Parasite fighting granulated wbc
Basophil
Granulated wbc that releases histamine and heparin
Neutrophil
-First to injury site activates mast cells phagocytic
-Bacterial
Mast cell
Release heparine and histamine into tissues to support inflammatory response
Monocytes
-Largest white blood cell phagocytic
-Differentiate into macrophages and monocytes
-Defense against viruses and bacteria
Pathway of blood leaving heart and returning (Vessels)
Artery, arterioles, capillary, venules, veins
Fibrin
an insoluble protein that is produced in response to bleeding and is the major component of the blood clot. Fibrin is a tough protein substance that is arranged in long fibrous chains; it is formed from fibrinogen
Fibrinogen
A soluble protein that is produced by the liver and found in blood plasma
Platelets
Help to form clots in order to repair injured tissues
Thrombin- an enzyme in blood plasma which causes the clotting of blood by converting fibrinogen to fibrin
Prothrombin
A blood clotting protein that is needed to form fibrin produced in the liver
-Needs vitamin K
Angina and what can cause it
Chest pain caused by the arteries that supply your heart muscle with blood and oxygen are narrowed by a fatty substance called plaque which reduces blood flow to the heart
Surfactant
-Surfactant is a mixture of fat and proteins made in the lungs
-Surfactant coats the alveoli
-Insufficient surfactant can cause respiratory distress syndrome which is very common premature newborns
Respiration
Gas exchange between capillaries and blood. External :Gas exchange between lungs and blood
Internal : tissue level
Tidal Volume
The amount of air that is moved in our out of your lungs with each respiratory cycle.
Inspiratory reserve volume
Inspiratory reserve volume
The amount of air a person can inhale forcefully after normal tidal volume inspiration
Expiratory reserve volume
The amount of air a person can exhale forcefully after a tidal volume expiration
Antigen
A toxin or other foreign substance which triggers an immune response from the body. Especially the production of antibodies.
Antibody
A protein made by plasma cells in response to an Antigen.
B Lymphocyte
Type of white blood cell that makes antibodies, Responsible for anti-body mediated immunity. Produced in the bone marrow.
T Lymphocyte
Originate in the thymus, 3 Types: 1. Cytotoxic (Directly attack foreign cells or body cells infected by virus) 2. Helper T cells (Stimulate the activities of both T and B cells.) 3. Suppressor T Cells (Inhibit both T and B cells).
NK Cells
Attack foreign cells, normal cells infected with viruses, and cancer cells that appear in normal tissues. Their continual monitoring of peripheral tissues is known as immunological surveillance.
Immunity types
-Active immunity: Produced by antibodies that develop due to antigens
-Naturally acquired active immunity: Developed after exposure to antigens in environment.
Induced active immunity: Develops after administration of antigen to prevent disease.
-Passive immunity: Produced by transfer of antibodies from another person.
Naturally Passive immunity: Conferred by transfer of maternal antibodies across placenta or in breast milk.
Induced Passive immunity: Conferred by administration of antibodies to combat infection.
Lipase
Enzyme the body uses to break down fats in the food so they can be absorbed in the intestines.
Salivary Glands
Make saliva which aids in digestion, keeps your mouth moist and supports healthy teeth. It aids in chewing and breaking down food. Parotid(biggest) Sublingual (smallest) Submandibular.
Glomerulus
-Recieve blood from afferent arteriole
-A cluster of nerve endings, spores, or small blood vessels
-In particular a cluster of capillaries around the end of a kidney tubule
-waste products are filtered from the blood
-blood levels in efferent arteriole
Glomerular capsule
-Also known as Bowman’s capsule
-Two walled pouch that covers the glomerulus
-Beginning of PCT
-Extract wastes, salts, and H20 from blood
Renal Tubule
encapsulates the PCT, loop of henley and DCT, collecting duct
Loop of Henley
-Composed of ascending and descending limb into tissues
-Descending limb: Reabsorption of H20 into tissues
-Ascending limb: Reabsorption of HC03- and NaCl
Renal Capsule
The kidneys are surrounded by a dense fibrous covering called the Renal Capsule
Zygote
Fertilized egg
Supposed to have 23 pairs of chromosomes
Fetus
Unborn offspring that develops from an embryo
Embryo
embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sperm cell.
Perimetrium
Outer most layer of the uterus
Endometreum
Mucus lining of the uterus
Fundus
Rounded superior portion of uterus
Cervix
The lower, narrow end of the uterus that forms a canal between the uterus and vagina.
Menstruation
periods
Dysmenorrhea
Pain during Menstruation
Varicella zoster
More commonly known as chickenpox, it is characterized by fever and severe skin rash.
Diabetes
Type 1 and type 2
Lordosis
Exaggerated curvature of the Lumbar
Kyphosis
Exaggerated curvature of thoracic (hunchback)
“ COX “
Scoliosis
sideways curvature of the spine
Cushing’s Disease
weight gain, Hyperadrenlism
Graves’ Disease
weight loss; over production of thyroid hormones
Addisons disease
Adrenal glands do not make enough cortisol
Hypocorticolism
Croup
An upper airway infection that blocks breathing and has a distinctive barking cough.
Cystic Fibrosis
affects the cells that produce mucus, sweat, and digestive juices. It causes these fluids to become thick and sticky. They then plug up tubes, ducts, and passageways.
Laryngitis
Inflammation of larynx, voicebox
Asthma
-a condition in which a person’s airways become inflamed, narrow and swell
-produce extra mucus, which makes it difficult to breathe.
Bronchitis
an infection of the main airways of the lungs (bronchi), causing them to become irritated and inflamed
Emphysema
the air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged; shortness of breath
How do Bronchodilators (drug) work?
relaxing the muscles in the lungs and widening the airways (bronchi).
Filtration stops
-if pressure drops
-filtration is dependent on pressure
Prolonged pressure increase
Leads to vasoconstriction
