6.8, 6.9, 6.10 Flashcards
What theory did psychologist Zajonc come up with
The theory behind the influence of others on performance
Define social facilitation (BEDTOP)
The behavioural effects due to others present
Why crowd support often benefits performance for experts but hinders performance for novices
It encourages pro performers, makes it enjoyable + brings out their best but for novices - large crowds can make them nervous
The 4 types of others which, Zajonc suggested, can be present when doing sport
The audience, co-actors, competitors + social reinforcers
Define an audience
Those watching the event, either live or on T.V
The effect of the presence of an audience on performers
It causes pressure
Define co-actors
Those who are doing the same task at the same time but aren’t involved in direct competition
A casual running example of 2 co-actors
2 joggers passing each other on opposite sides of the road
What are competitors also known as
Competitive co-actors
Define competitors
Those who are in direct competition
Define social reinforcers
Those who have a direct influence on the event/performance + their presence = part of the event
An example of a social reinforcer
A coach
The 2 categories of others who are present during sport
Passive + interactive
Define passive others
Those whose presence doesn’t exert a direct influence on the event
The main effect of the presence of passive others
Increased arousal
Why the presence of passive others causes increased arousal
As the performer is aware they’re being watched
The 2 types of passive others
The audience + co-actors
Define interactive others
Those who are actively involved in the event + can give encouragement, advice + can cause distractions
2 possible benefits of the presence of interactive others
They can offer encouragement + advice
A possible negative effect which the presence of interactive others can have on performance
They can cause distractions
What 2 factors determine the way in which a performer responds to being watched
The performer’s level of experience + the degree of difficulty of the task
Define social inhibition
The negative effect of the presence of others on performance
Define social facilitation
The +ve effect of the presence of others on performance
What 2 factors make social inhibition more likely
If the performer is a beginner (due to non-existent dominant response) or if the task is complex
What 2 factors make social facilitation more likely
If the performer is an expert (due to characteristics of dominant response) or if the task is simple
3 characteristics of an expert’s dominant response
Well-learned, familiar + autonomous
The 2 effects which the pressure from a crowd can have on a (novice) performer to Impair their performance - which cause social inhibition
The performer gets anxious + over-aroused
The 2 effects which the presence a crowd can have on a (expert) performer to benefit their performance - which cause/promote social facilitation
They will be motivated + encouraged
An example of social facilitation
A home crowd cheering you on
Why increased arousal/stress (from the presence of others) impairs the performance of more complex skills
The ability to process all of the info required to perform a complex skill is reduced as arousal increases
The link between drive theory and the effect s of an audience
The presence of others increases arousal and often hinders performance, drive theory explains how increased arousal affects performance
Evaluation apprehension
The perceived fear of being judged
The 2 possible types of effect of evaluation apprehension
+ve + -ve
The effect of evaluation apprehension on arousal
Arousal increases
3 types of people whose presence makes evaluation apprehension more likely
Experts (according to the performer), Significant others, Known audiences (e.g. family)
2 features of an audience which can make evaluation apprehension more likely
If they’re openly critical or a silent audience
What makes an individual performer more likely to suffer from evaluation apprehension
If they’re lacking confidence
2 types of people who can use strategies to limit the effects of social inhibition + evaluation apprehension
Coaches + performers
5 strategies to limit the effects of social inhibition + evaluation apprehension
Get players familiar with performing in front of crowds (familiarisation - e.g. add unfamiliar faces to the usual parent crowd), Gradually introduce evaluation/assessment/review of performance (start with informal chats + build up to formal assessment/stats/one-on-one interviews - players = increasingly able to deal with scrutiny as they gain experience), Support from team mates + peer groups to encourage performers when large crowds = present, Reduce the importance of the event/don’t put pressure on performers, Improve focus + concentration on the performance with selective attention
An example of familiarisation in preventing social inhibition
A coach allowing a team to train with the distraction of an audience so they get used to being watched - + gradually increase audience size
4 features of a team + briefly explain
Collective identity (they’re easily identifiable e.g. wearing the same kit - creates strong sense of affiliation + pride - gives motivation + a sense of belonging), Interaction (players link their roles with the rest of the team - so work together to complete a task), Communication (helps with interaction - individuals talk + communicate non-verbally e.g. hand signals in rugby), Shared goal/purpose (keeps individuals working for each other + motivated)
The psychologist who suggested the 4 stages to group formation in order to become a unit + when
Tuckman (1965)
A type of group in sport
A sports team
The 4 stages of group formation
Forming, storming, norming + performing
The length of the 1st stage of group formation
Short
3 main features of the 1st stage of group formation
The group comes together/gets to know each other, Individuals make opinions about the team/how they’ll fit in, Individuals compare their strengths
2 main features of the 2nd stage of group formation
Individuals compete/conflict to establish position/status/roles in the team (e.g. for captain), The coach/captain should resolve issues ASAP (to ensure players accept alternatives)
4 features of the 3rd stage of group formation
Conflicts = resolved, Teams starts to settle down/co-operate with the intention of achieving their goals, Group standards = accepted, Cohesion of the team develops
3 features of the 4th stage of group formation
All the players co-operate/interact to achieve their goals, Team mates support each other, Roles in the team = understood
Three factors which affect the duration of the process of group formation
Size of the group, Difficulty of task, Experience of player
An example in sport when group formation takes longer
A representative teams (learning unfamiliar tactics + roles during infrequent meetings)
An example in sport when group formation = quicker
An established team accepting new members
An example when a team didn’t achieve what they’re capable of/under-performed despite the best players + facilities
England football in 2014 World Cup
An example when a team achieved unexpected success despite players of a lower standard
Wigan beating Arsenal in 2013 F.A cup final
3 factors + influences on the team which can positively or negatively influence performance
How players work together, Motivation, Integration
The cohesion key
The integration of team members + how they work together
Cohesion
The tendency (the forces acting) for individuals to work together to achieve their goals
The argument about cohesion + success
Some say cohesion leads to success of a team
4 types of team cohesion
Co-action + interaction, social + task
Co-action
Every team member working hard at the same thing/role at the same time (e.g. rowing crews - they literally pull together)
Interaction
When a group works together to produce results but individuals have different roles which are integrated with the roles of team mates (e.g. in football)
What dictates the type of cohesion present in a team
The sport
Task cohesion
Individuals working together to achieve an end result (either through co-action or interaction)
Social cohesion
Individuals relating to/trusting/supporting each other + getting on with each other + socialising outside of sport
The impact of task + social cohesion on performance
Improved results
3 benefits of social cohesion on the team
It benefits interaction, communication + team spirit
The negative influence of social cohesion on a team
It can form sub-groups (where some team mates won’t co-operate or contribute to team questions/tactics)
Is task or social cohesion more important + why
Task - performances can still be good even if a team doesn’t socialise (due to their desire to succeed)
What is the Steiner model of team performance (1972)
Actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes
Actual productivity
The result/performance of a team
Potential productivity
The best possible performance if everything went perfectly, Based on player ability + available resources relative to those of the opponent’s (the complexity of the task)
Faulty processes
The things that go wrong to prevent group potential being reached
2 types of faulty processes
Co-ordination + motivational problems
3 causes of co-ordination problems
When players ignore the coach’s instructions/tactics, when the players in the team don’t communicate or when players misunderstand their roles in the team
The cause of motivational problems
Too much/little arousal/drive (causing a lack of effort + concentration)
2 examples of motivational problems
Social loafing + the Ringlemann effect
Social loafing
Individual loss of motivation in a team player due to lack of individual performance recognition - when players feel under-valued - resulting in a lack of contribution
6 causes of social loafing
A lack of confidence in their own ability to compete with the opposition, A -ve attitude (e.g. due to not liking their designated position), A lack of reinforcement/rewards from the coach/captain (e.g. not offering man of the match awards), Players not understanding their designated role, A lack of fitness, Goals set by coaches being too general - )they need to know more about how their own contribution can help)
The Ringlemann effect
When group performance decreases as group size increases (due to a lack of performance identification)
6 methods coaches could use to avoid social loafing
Reward player effort, Give players clear roles/responsibilities (e.g. to man-mark someone), Use stats (to highlight individual performance), Set realistic + specific goals which aren’t result-based, Use video analysis (highlights individual performance), Use feedback (to evaluate + assess performance)
3 benefits of goal setting
Increased (intrinsic) motivation (when goals are reached), Improved confidence (due to goals being reached highlighting individual improvements), Regulating + sustaining effort (as players strive to reach targets)
4 types of goals
Outcome, task-orientated, performance + process goals
Outcome goal
A long-term goal set against the performance of others + based on a result/success
An example of an outcome goal
Finishing in the top 3
What must be considered when setting outcome goals in order to maintain motivation
They must be realistic
The disadvantage of outcome goals
Motivation can be lost (if goals aren’t achieved or if the performer feels they’re not as good as their competitors when comparing with them or if the performer feels the goal is unrealistic - can lead to stress during performance)
Who outcome goals are best suited for
Experienced performers
Task-orientated goals
Goals based on improving performance/technique + not the result + not comparing with others, only your own past performances
An example of a task-orientated goal
Getting a PB
Performance goals
Short-term goals aimed at improving individual performance + not comparing with others - only with individual past performances
An example of a performance goal
Getting a new PB
What is sometimes required when setting performance goals
Process goals
Process goals
‘Stepping stone’ goals based on improving individual techniques which make up a performance (e.g. different techniques used in swimming) - allow performance goals to be reached
2 types of goal which should always be included when goal setting
Process + performance goals
3 benefits of performance goals over outcome goals
Reduced anxiety during performance, more consistent motivation + reassurance
7 factors coaches + players should consider when setting goals in order for them to be effective (the SMARTER principle) according to the National Coaching Foundation
Specific, Measured, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound, Evaluate, Re-do
3 ways to make goals specific
Use data, Make them specific to the performer, Make them specific to the sport
An example of a specific goal in swimming
Improving swimming technique by kicking from the hips
3 ways to make goals measured
Ensure there’s assessment involved, Allow performers access to stats (e.g. pass completion rates), Ensure feedback is precise (in sports where judgment occurs e.g. in dance)
2 benefits of a goals being measured
The performer can see their own progress towards their goal, It aids motivation
What makes a goal achievable/realistic
The performer should be able to reach their goal with a controlled amount of effort
3 benefits of making a goal achievable/realistic
It improves motivation, self-satisfaction + willingness to extend the target
A possible side-effect of setting an unrealistic/unachievable goal
Anxiety
What makes a goal time-bound
There should be a clear deadline so you can assess if the goal’s been reached
2 benefits of goals being time-bound
You can gauge progress + maintain motivation
What should be evaluated when goals are achieved
The methods which worked better than others
The benefit of evaluating goals
Successful methods can be used to reach future goals
3 cases when performers should re-do goals
If the goal isn’t reached, if progress = slow or if after evaluation the performer feels they could have done better
How to ensure success when re-doing a goal
Adjust the goal
