2.1 and 2.2

Question 1

Skill definition (by sports psychologist Barbara Knapp in 1963)

Answer 1

The learned ability to bring about predetermined results with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both

Question 2

Characteristics of a skill

Answer 2

ACEFLAG

Asthetically pleasing, consistent, efficient, fluent, learned, accurate, goal directed

Question 3

Why skills are classified (into groups)

Answer 3

It allows the correct form of practice to be chosen

Question 4

What the classifications of skills are based on

Answer 4

A clearly defined criteria

Question 5

What the continua show

Answer 5

The extent to which a skill matches the set criteria

Question 6

Who uses skill classification + why

Answer 6

Coaches + players use it + adjust their type of practice accordingly so that the most beneficial effect can be found when skills are used in performances

Question 7

A sub-routine

Answer 7

An action that’s part of the whole skill movement

Question 8

The different continua

Answer 8

Open - Closed: environmental influence, Gross - fine: extent of muscles used, Self paced - externally paced: control + rate of execution, Discrete - continuous - serial: continuity, High - low: organization, Simple - complex: degree of difficulty/amount of info needed to complete the skill

Question 9

Open skill

Answer 9

A skill performed in an unpredictable environment, Means the performer has to think + make decisions while performing e.g. due to the opposition moving around, E.g. a pass in a football match

Question 10

Closed skill

Answer 10

A skill performed in a predictable environment, Means the performer doesn’t have to think + make decisions while performing + the performer can repeat the skill consistently,E.g. a shot putt.

Question 11

Gross skill

Answer 11

A skill that uses large muscle groups, E.g. a rugby tackle - uses large quadriceps muscles + shoulder muscles

Question 12

Fine skill

Answer 12

A skill that uses smaller muscle groups for fine motor control, E.g. a table tennis shot or firing a shot in pistol shooting- uses small muscles to control the movements of the eyes and wrist/fingers

Question 13

Self-paced skill

Answer 13

When the performer controls the start + speed of the skill,E.g. a football penalty - the performer decides when to take it + how hard to kick it

Question 14

Externally paced skill

Answer 14

When the performer has no control over the start + speed of the skill, E.g. sailing - the sailor reacts to the speed of wind + the flow of current when performing a manoeuvre + they start the race on the horn

Question 15

Discrete skill

Answer 15

A skill that has a clear beginning + end - so is 1 short, sharp action, E.g. a tennis serve - after the serve - the player either stops + repeats it or moves to deal with a possible return

Question 16

Serial skill

Answer 16

A skill that contains several discrete skills linked together in a specific order to make a more integrated movement + a complete performance, E.g. - triple jump the hop, step + jump discrete skills are combined to make up the movement

Question 17

Continuous skill

Answer 17

A skill that has no clear beginning + end + often - the end of one sub-routine of the skill = the start of the next part

Question 18

Low organised skill

Answer 18

A skill that is easily broken down into sub-routines, E.g. a swimming stroke - the arm action, leg action and body positioning can be practised separately if needed

Question 19

High organised skill

Answer 19

A skill that isn’t easily broken into sub-routines, E.g. a volley in football - the action is v. quick so the sub-routines merge as the skill is performed

Question 20

Simple skill

Answer 20

A skill that requires a lack of decisions and thinking when being performed, E.g. a forward role in gymnastics

Question 21

Complex skill

Answer 21

A skill that requires decision making, needing lots of information before it can be performed, E.g. dribbling in hockey - the player as to take into account other players, attackers and defenders and concentrate on the ball and the control of the stick

Question 22

Cognitive parts of a skill

Answer 22

Thinking during a skill E.g. Accounting for opposition players when dribbling in hockey

Question 23

Psychomotor parts of a skill

Answer 23

Involving movements of the performer’s body E.g. The stick action when dribbling in hockey

Question 24

Can skills change their position in a classification

Answer 24

Yes, in different situations and as the performance progresses, E.g. In an isolated practice drill, a basketball dribble without opposition is a closed skill , but changes to an open skill if they suddenly had opposition, E.g. A swim start is discrete but the swimming stroke is continuous

Question 25

Transfer (of learning)

Answer 25

The effect of the learning and performance of one skill on the learning and performance of another

Question 26

Positive transfer

Answer 26

When the learning of one skill helps the learning of another,Normally happens when two skills have similar shape and form and the actions are similar so the movements of one skill help that of the other, E.g. The overarm volleyball serve and the tennis serve,E.g a basketball and a netball pass

Question 27

Negative transfer

Answer 27

When the learning (of the action) of one skill hinders the learning of another,It happens when the environment in which two skills are performed in is similar which may cause confusion when the actions of the two skills aren’t the same,E.g badminton and tennis (serves) - both use a court and a net but badminton uses a wrist action and tennis uses an arm action

Question 28

Zero transfer

Answer 28

When the learning of one skill has no impact on the learning of another as the two skills have no similarities or aspects of confusion, E.g. The swimming arm action and the foot placement in rock climbing have nothing in common

Question 29

Bilateral transfer

Answer 29

When the learning of one skill is passes across the body from limb to limb, E.g a right-footed footballer is encouraged to use his left foot so the power of his shots from both feet become equal

Question 30

Why coaches want to ensure positive transfer

Answer 30

It may help players to acquire a greater range of skills

Question 31

How positive transfer can be encouraged (by a coach)

Answer 31

Ensure training is realistic and relevant E.g. Replace the use of cones or tackle bags with real people in small-sided games, Ensure one skill is well learned before moving on to a more advanced skill to ensure performers experience slow, planned progression, during which, the coach could reward and reinforce the players’ use of correct adaptations of positive transfer by praising players for using skills with similar actions

Question 32

Methods of presenting practice (skills)

Answer 32

Whole, whole-part whole and progressive part practice

Question 33

Whole practice

Answer 33

Practising the skill in its entirety without breaking it into sub-routines, It’s the ideal way to teach a skill as it promotes understanding, establishes links between sub-routines and creates fluency, E.g. The golf swing of an experienced player as it’s discrete

Question 34

When to use whole practice

Answer 34

When the skill is ballistic (explosive) and discrete e.g. A tennis serve, highly organised and simple (as fewer demands are placed on the performer, When the feel (kinaesthesis) of the whole task is required as the learner develops and becomes ready to perform the whole task, When the performer is advanced (in the autonomous stage of learning) so they’re able to cope with the demands of the whole task and just need fine tuning, When the link between the sub-routines must be maintained, When the skill must be performed in a specific order E.g. In a trampoline routine, For a closed and self paced skill

Question 35

Advantages of whole practice

Answer 35

It gives a fell for the whole skill, The links between the sub-routines are maintained E.g. In a golf swing - the hip movements lead to a controlled arm action - so it can make the performance more fluent, It’s time efficient - it may only take a short time to perfect the performance, It helps create motor programmes, It’s more realistic than part practice - helps to produce the effect of positive transfer between the skills used in training and those same skills during the performances, Helps to keep the skill consistent and helps the performer keep good habits and to perform the skill autonomously

Question 36

Motor programmes

Answer 36

Specific images that can be stored as a plan in the long-term memory and contain mental images of al, parts of the skill - useful when the skill must be recalled from memory and performed

Question 37

Disadvantages of whole practice

Answer 37

It may place unnecessary demands on the performer, especially a beginner who may not be able to cope with all aspects of the skill at once, The risk of fatigue if the whole task is attempted without a break, There may be too much information for the performer to process

Question 38

Whole-part-whole practice

Answer 38

It involves assessing the whole skill (so the performer gets an initial feel for the movement), identifying a specific weakness to practice, practising it individually and then putting it back into the whole skill. E.g. A quite experienced volleyball player who has a problem with the spike - the whole action can be looked at, a specific issue with the arm action can then be identified and corrected and out back into the whole skill

Question 39

When to use whole-part-whole practice

Answer 39

When a beginner is doing a complex task and may need to concentrate on one part of the skill (with the coach), so they can correct it, before making progress especially when the skill is highly organised - it maintains the links between the sub-routines as the skill isn’t broken up, For a ballistic skill, E.g. Correcting a performer’s poor grip in a golf swing

Question 40

Advantages of whole-part-whole practice

Answer 40

It can provide motivation when success in achieved and a long-standing weakness is corrected,It provides immediate feedback so corrects errors and allows the highlighted part to be integrated successfully into the whole action which improves the performance and corrects errors, It maintains the feel for the whole skill and the links between sub-routines

Question 41

Disadvantages of whole-part-whole practice

Answer 41

It may cause negative transfer if the coach doesn’t integrate the sub-routine back into the whole skill during the same training session (or ASAP) so the whole action can be learned and the corrections are fresh in the performer’s mind, It’s more time consuming than whole practice

Question 42

Progressive part practice (chaining)

Answer 42

Involves practising the first part of a skill then adding parts gradually - links sub-routines together in order/sequence, The first two parts are learned, then the third part is learned then added to the first two etc.

Question 43

When to use progressive part practice

Answer 43

For serial skills where the order is important and the links between sub-routines must be made E.g a dance routine to form a complete performance, For dangerous skills E.g. Learning a routine on a trampoline, When the skills is low organised and each sub-routine is discrete, For a complex skill as isolating a complex sub-routine takes the pressure off the performer, For externally paced skills

Question 44

Advantages of progressive part practice

Answer 44

The performer can focus on one sub-routine at a time and correct specific weaknesses, The learner can rest which reduces fatigue, It helps with motivation as each part brings success, It builds an initial understanding - improves the confidence of the performer as success is achieved, It allows both coach and performer to focus on specific issues/sub-routines within the task

Question 45

Disadvantages of progressive part practice

Answer 45

It’s time consuming, It might neglect the feel of the whole task and might ignore links between subroutines, A risk of negative transfer between each part of the skill - the coach must ensure the first part of the task is well learned before progressing

Question 46

Types of practice

Answer 46

Massed, varied, distributed and mental practice

Question 47

Massed practice

Answer 47

It’s continuous, with no rest intervals, Involves many repetitions of the same skill

Question 48

When to use massed practice

Answer 48

When the skill is discrete, simple, closed, highly organised and self paced E.g. A basketball player practising a free throw

Question 49

Advantages of massed oractice

Answer 49

It promotes fitness so the performer can cope with the extended demands of the task, It enhances over learning, It makes the skill become autonomous - fixed responses become habitual and the skill becomes consistent, Motor programmes can be stored more easily, Time efficient for both the coach and the performer

Question 50

Disadvantages of massed practice

Answer 50

Risk of fatigue - especially if a performer lacks fitness, Risk of negative transfer if the training is unrealistic, Too demanding,No time for feedback,High demands on the performer mean the coach must keep practice simple and they must maintain the motivation of the performer so they keep repeating the drills

Question 51

Distributed practice

Answer 51

Involves rest intervals.

Question 52

When to use distributed practice

Answer 52

When the skill is continuous - the performer may need a break, When the skill practice is changed (varied practice) for an open skill - the breaks allow the coach to explain the changes to the practice drill, For a complex or externally paced skill - the break relieves the pressure and intensity from the performers, For a serial skill, For a low organised skill

Question 53

Advantages of distributed practice

Answer 53

It take mental pressure of the performer - especially good for a beginner, It allows recovery - prevents fatigue, Good for beginners as it allows controlled progress to be made at a controlled pace, Coaching advice can be given to the performer during the rest interval, The performer could use mental practice during the rest interval, It offers motivation to the performer if praise is given by the coach during the rest interval,It’s a safe way of practising dangerous activities - clear instructions can be given to avoid danger

Question 54

Disadvantages of distributed practice

Answer 54

It’s time consuming - reduces the rate of progress, May not be useful for experts who want to over-learn their skills, A risk of negative transfer after the rest interval if the coach doesn’t integrate the practice session

Question 55

Varied practice

Answer 55

Involves changing drills and practice type

Question 56

When to use vqried practice

Answer 56

For open skills so the performers learn to adapt to a changing environment (positive transfer as training is realistic) E.g. A coach may used massed practice to practise shooting without opposition and then use more progressive practise by adding opponents, For externally paced skills, During a continuous skill for motivation, For complex skills - do easy part first then add to it

Question 57

Advantages of varied practice

Answer 57

It allows performers to adapt their skills to changing environments and is very realistic for open skills, It prevents players losing motivation, It builds the sub-routines of a skill, It helps to develop a schema

Question 58

A schema

Answer 58

A method of adapting existing skills form the memory store

Question 59

Disadvantages of varied practice

Answer 59

It’s time consuming, A risk of negative transfer unless all the drills are relevant to the aim of the practice session, It might place unnecessary demands on the performers if they’re given too many things to focus on, A risk of fatigue

Question 60

Mental practice and when to use it

Answer 60

An increasingly popular technique which is used in addition to physical practice to aid performance,The athlete goes through the performance in their mind without movement either before a performance or during a rest interval within practice,It’s best combined with physical practice, It can be used as part of a warm up to provide preparation for the task ahead, A games player may mentally rehearse a move or set play before kick off

Question 61

Advantages of mental practice

Answer 61

It improves confidence and lowers anxiety, It stimulates muscle receptors so the payer is better prepared and increases reaction times, It develops cognitive (thinking) ability and improves decision making, It can be done when the player is injured - helps to maintain memory of the skill, It can be internal (looks at performance from within - what it feels like to perform the skill and how your anxieties and mental control of the skill can be improved) or external (involves forming an image of yourself performing the skill - as if you were on T.V), It provides a basic picture of the requirements of the skill, There are different approaches for different abilities

Question 62

Disadvantages of mental practice

Answer 62

It must be correct, The environment must be calm

Question 63

Mental practice for beginners

Answer 63

Should be short and should emphasise the key parts of the task to lower anxiety, build confidence, provide a basic picture of the requirements of the skill, reduce errors and provide motivation

Question 64

Mental practice of expert performers

Answer 64

Should establish the techniques of mental practice so a coach can concentrate on devoting a session to preparing for the next performance, Can highlight specific tactics or strategies,Can focus on opponent weaknesses, The performers should be allowed to control the session