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SAJID A Level AQA Biology > 5.6: Vaccination > Flashcards

5.6: Vaccination Flashcards

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1
Q

How is immunity acquired?

From immunity, there is what?

A

From immunity, there is:

  1. Innate immunity
  2. Adaptive immunity
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2
Q

How is immunity acquired?
From immunity, there is innate immunity and adaptive immunity.
From adaptive immunity, there is what?

A

From adaptive immunity, there is:

  1. Natural immunity
  2. Artificial immunity
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3
Q

How is immunity acquired?
From immunity, there is innate immunity and adaptive immunity.
From adaptive immunity, there is natural immunity and artificial immunity.
From natural immunity, there is what?

A

From natural immunity, there is:

  1. Active immunity
  2. Passive immunity
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4
Q

How is immunity acquired?
From immunity, there is innate immunity and adaptive immunity.
From adaptive immunity, there is natural immunity and artificial immunity.
From natural immunity, there is active immunity (what) and passive immunity (what)?

A

From natural immunity, there is:

  1. Active immunity (infection)
  2. Passive immunity (maternal)
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5
Q

How is immunity acquired?
From immunity, there is innate immunity and adaptive immunity.
From adaptive immunity, there is natural immunity and artificial immunity.
From artificial immunity, there is what?

A

From artificial immunity, there is:

  1. Active immunity
  2. Passive immunity
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6
Q

How is immunity acquired?
From immunity, there is innate immunity and adaptive immunity.
From adaptive immunity, there is natural immunity and artificial immunity.
From artificial immunity, there is active immunity (what) and passive immunity (what)?

A

From artificial immunity, there is:

  1. Active immunity (vaccination)
  2. Passive immunity (antibody transfer)
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7
Q

Immunity

A

Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist infection

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8
Q

How many types of immunity are there?

A

There are 2 types of immunity:

  1. Active immunity
  2. Passive immunity
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9
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Active immunity is produced by what?

A

Active immunity is produced by stimulating the production of antibodies by the individual’s own immune system

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10
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Active immunity is produced by stimulating the production of antibodies by the individual’s own immune system.
What is necessary?

A 
Direct contact with:
1. The pathogen
Or,
2. Its antigen
is necessary
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11
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Active immunity is produced by stimulating the production of antibodies by the individual’s own immune system.
Direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary.
Active immunity takes what to develop?

A

Active immunity takes time to develop

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12
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Active immunity is produced by stimulating the production of antibodies by the individual’s own immune system.
Direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary.
Active immunity takes time to develop.
Active immunity is generally what?

A

Active immunity is generally long-lasting

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13
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Active immunity is produced by stimulating the production of antibodies by the individual’s own immune system.
Direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary.
Active immunity takes time to develop.
Active immunity is generally long-lasting and there are how many types of active immunity?

A

Active immunity is generally long-lasting and there are 2 types of active immunity:

  1. Natural active immunity
  2. Artificial active immunity
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14
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Active immunity is produced by stimulating the production of antibodies by the individual’s own immune system.
Direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary.
Active immunity takes time to develop.
Active immunity is generally long-lasting and there are 2 types of active immunity - Natural active immunity and artificial active immunity.
Natural active immunity results from what?

A

Natural active immunity results from an individual becoming infected with a disease under normal circumstances

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15
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Active immunity is produced by stimulating the production of antibodies by the individual’s own immune system.
Direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary.
Active immunity takes time to develop.
Active immunity is generally long-lasting and there are 2 types of active immunity - Natural active immunity and artificial active immunity.
Natural active immunity results from an individual becoming infected with a disease under normal circumstances.
The body does what?

A

The body produces its own antibodies

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16
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Active immunity is produced by stimulating the production of antibodies by the individual’s own immune system.
Direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary.
Active immunity takes time to develop.
Active immunity is generally long-lasting and there are 2 types of active immunity - Natural active immunity and artificial active immunity.
Natural active immunity results from an individual becoming infected with a disease under normal circumstances.
The body produces its own antibodies and may what?

A

The body:

  1. Produces its own antibodies
  2. May continue to do so for many years
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17
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Active immunity is produced by stimulating the production of antibodies by the individual’s own immune system.
Direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary.
Active immunity takes time to develop.
Active immunity is generally long-lasting and there are 2 types of active immunity - Natural active immunity and artificial active immunity.
Artificial active immunity forms what?

A

Artificial active immunity forms the basis of vaccination

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18
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Active immunity is produced by stimulating the production of antibodies by the individual’s own immune system.
Direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary.
Active immunity takes time to develop.
Active immunity is generally long-lasting and there are 2 types of active immunity - Natural active immunity and artificial active immunity.
Artificial active immunity forms the basis of vaccination.
Artificial active immunity involves doing what in an individual, without them doing what?

A

Artificial active immunity involves inducing an immune response in an individual, without them suffering the symptoms of the disease

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19
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Passive immunity is produced by what?

A

Passive immunity is produced by the introduction of antibodies into individuals from an outside source

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20
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Passive immunity is produced by the introduction of antibodies into individuals from an outside source.
No what is necessary to induce immunity?

A 
No direct contact with:
1. The pathogen
Or,
2. Its antigen
is necessary to induce immunity
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21
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Passive immunity is produced by the introduction of antibodies into individuals from an outside source.
No direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary to induce immunity.
Passive immunity is acquired when?

A

Passive immunity is acquired immediately

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22
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Passive immunity is produced by the introduction of antibodies into individuals from an outside source.
No direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary to induce immunity.
Passive immunity is acquired immediately.
As the antibodies are not being produced by the individuals themselves, what happens?

A

As the antibodies are not being produced by the individuals themselves:

  1. The antibodies are not replaced when they are broken down
  2. No memory cells are formed
  3. So there is no lasting immunity
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23
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Passive immunity is produced by the introduction of antibodies into individuals from an outside source.
No direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary to induce immunity.
Passive immunity is acquired immediately.
As the antibodies are not being produced by the individuals themselves, the antibodies are not replaced when they are broken down, no memory cells are formed and so there is no lasting immunity.
Examples of passive immunity include what?

A

Examples of passive immunity include:

  1. Anti-venom given to the victims of snake bites
  2. The immunity acquired by the fetus when antibodies pass across the placenta from the mother
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24
Q

There are 2 types of immunity - Active immunity and passive immunity.
Passive immunity is produced by the introduction of antibodies into individuals from an outside source.
No direct contact with the pathogen or its antigen is necessary to induce immunity.
Passive immunity is acquired immediately.
As the antibodies are not being produced by the individuals themselves, the antibodies are not replaced when they are broken down, no memory cells are formed and so there is no lasting immunity.
The antibodies are made by what, not by you?

A

The antibodies are made by another organism, not by you

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25
Q

Vaccination

A

Vaccination is the introduction of the appropriate disease antigens into the body, either by:
1. Injection
Or,
2. Mouth

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26
Q

Vaccination is the introduction of the appropriate disease antigens into the body, either by injection or by mouth.
The intention is to do what?

A

The intention is to stimulate an immune response against a particular disease

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27
Q

Vaccination is the introduction of the appropriate disease antigens into the body, either by injection or by mouth.
The intention is to stimulate an immune response against a particular disease.
The material introduced is called a what?

A

The material introduced is called a vaccine

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28
Q

Vaccination is the introduction of the appropriate disease antigens into the body, either by injection or by mouth.
The intention is to stimulate an immune response against a particular disease.
The material introduced is called a vaccine and, in whatever form, it contains what?

A 
The material introduced is called a vaccine and, in whatever form, it contains:
1. One
Or,
2. More
types of antigen from the pathogen
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29
Q

Vaccination is the introduction of the appropriate disease antigens into the body, either by injection or by mouth.
The intention is to stimulate an immune response against a particular disease.
The material introduced is called a vaccine and, in whatever form, it contains one or more types of antigen from the pathogen.
These antigens stimulate the immune response.
The immune response is what?

A

The immune response is slight

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30
Q

Vaccination is the introduction of the appropriate disease antigens into the body, either by injection or by mouth.
The intention is to stimulate an immune response against a particular disease.
The material introduced is called a vaccine and, in whatever form, it contains one or more types of antigen from the pathogen.
These antigens stimulate the immune response.
Why is the immune response slight?

A

The immune response is slight, because only a small amount of antigen has been introduced

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31
Q

Vaccination is the introduction of the appropriate disease antigens into the body, either by injection or by mouth.
The intention is to stimulate an immune response against a particular disease.
The material introduced is called a vaccine and, in whatever form, it contains one or more types of antigen from the pathogen.
These antigens stimulate the immune response.
The immune response is slight, because only a small amount of antigen has been introduced.
However, the crucial factor is that what are produced?

A

The crucial factor is that memory cells are produced

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32
Q

Vaccination is the introduction of the appropriate disease antigens into the body, either by injection or by mouth.
The intention is to stimulate an immune response against a particular disease.
The material introduced is called a vaccine and, in whatever form, it contains one or more types of antigen from the pathogen.
These antigens stimulate the immune response.
The immune response is slight, because only a small amount of antigen has been introduced.
However, the crucial factor is that memory cells are produced.
These memory cells do what?

A

These memory cells:

  1. Remain in the blood
  2. Allow a greater (more intense) and more immediate response to a future infection with the pathogen
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33
Q

Vaccination is the introduction of the appropriate disease antigens into the body, either by injection or by mouth.
The intention is to stimulate an immune response against a particular disease.
The material introduced is called a vaccine and, in whatever form, it contains one or more types of antigen from the pathogen.
These antigens stimulate the immune response.
The immune response is slight, because only a small amount of antigen has been introduced.
However, the crucial factor is that memory cells are produced.
These memory cells remain in the blood and allow a greater (more intense) and more immediate response to a future infection with the pathogen.
What is the result?

A

The result is that:

  1. There is a rapid production of antibodies
  2. The new infection is rapidly overcome before it can cause any harm and with few, if any, symptoms
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34
Q

Vaccination is the introduction of the appropriate disease antigens into the body, either by injection or by mouth.
The intention is to stimulate an immune response against a particular disease.
The material introduced is called a vaccine and, in whatever form, it contains one or more types of antigen from the pathogen.
These antigens stimulate the immune response.
The immune response is slight, because only a small amount of antigen has been introduced.
However, the crucial factor is that memory cells are produced.
These memory cells remain in the blood and allow a greater (more intense) and more immediate response to a future infection with the pathogen.
The result is that there is a rapid production of antibodies and the new infection is rapidly overcome before it can cause any harm and with few, if any, symptoms.
When carried out on a large scale, vaccination provides what not only for individuals, but also for what?

A

When carried out on a large scale, vaccination provides protection against disease not only for individuals, but also for whole populations

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35
Q

It is important to understand that vaccination is used as a what measure to prevent individuals doing what?

A

It is important to understand that vaccination is used as a precautionary measure to prevent individuals contracting a disease

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36
Q

It is important to understand that vaccination is used as a precautionary measure to prevent individuals contracting a disease.
It is not a means of doing what?

A

It is not a means of treating individuals who already have the disease

37
Q

It is important to understand that vaccination is used as a precautionary measure to prevent individuals contracting a disease.
It is not a means of treating individuals who already have the disease.
Some programmes of vaccination against diseases have had what?

A

Some programmes of vaccination against diseases have had considerable success

38
Q

It is important to understand that vaccination is used as a precautionary measure to prevent individuals contracting a disease.
It is not a means of treating individuals who already have the disease.
Some programmes of vaccination against diseases have had considerable success.
Yet, in other instances, similar measures have been less successful.
The success of a vaccination programme depends on a number of factors:
1. A suitable vaccine must be what to immunise most of the vulnerable population?

A

A suitable vaccine must be economically available in sufficient quantities to immunise most of the vulnerable population

39
Q

It is important to understand that vaccination is used as a precautionary measure to prevent individuals contracting a disease.
It is not a means of treating individuals who already have the disease.
Some programmes of vaccination against diseases have had considerable success.
Yet, in other instances, similar measures have been less successful.
The success of a vaccination programme depends on a number of factors:
1. A suitable vaccine must be economically available in sufficient quantities to immunise most of the vulnerable population.
The development of new vaccines is a highly what process requiring what conditions?

A

The development of new vaccines is a highly technological process requiring sterile conditions

40
Q

It is important to understand that vaccination is used as a precautionary measure to prevent individuals contracting a disease.
It is not a means of treating individuals who already have the disease.
Some programmes of vaccination against diseases have had considerable success.
Yet, in other instances, similar measures have been less successful.
The success of a vaccination programme depends on a number of factors:
1. A suitable vaccine must be economically available in sufficient quantities to immunise most of the vulnerable population.
The development of new vaccines is a highly technological process requiring sterile conditions.
2. There must be few what, if any, from vaccination?

A

There must be few side effects, if any, from vaccination

41
Q

It is important to understand that vaccination is used as a precautionary measure to prevent individuals contracting a disease.
It is not a means of treating individuals who already have the disease.
Some programmes of vaccination against diseases have had considerable success.
Yet, in other instances, similar measures have been less successful.
The success of a vaccination programme depends on a number of factors:
1. A suitable vaccine must be economically available in sufficient quantities to immunise most of the vulnerable population.
The development of new vaccines is a highly technological process requiring sterile conditions.
2. There must be few side effects, if any, from vaccination.
Unpleasant side effects may do what?

A

Unpleasant side effects may discourage individuals in the population from being vaccinated

42
Q

It is important to understand that vaccination is used as a precautionary measure to prevent individuals contracting a disease.
It is not a means of treating individuals who already have the disease.
Some programmes of vaccination against diseases have had considerable success.
Yet, in other instances, similar measures have been less successful.
The success of a vaccination programme depends on a number of factors:
1. A suitable vaccine must be economically available in sufficient quantities to immunise most of the vulnerable population.
The development of new vaccines is a highly technological process requiring sterile conditions.
2. There must be few side effects, if any, from vaccination.
Unpleasant side effects may discourage individuals in the population from being vaccinated.
3. The means of what must be available?

A 
The means of:
1. Producing
2. Storing
3. Transporting
the vaccine must be available
43
Q

It is important to understand that vaccination is used as a precautionary measure to prevent individuals contracting a disease.
It is not a means of treating individuals who already have the disease.
Some programmes of vaccination against diseases have had considerable success.
Yet, in other instances, similar measures have been less successful.
The success of a vaccination programme depends on a number of factors:
1. A suitable vaccine must be economically available in sufficient quantities to immunise most of the vulnerable population.
The development of new vaccines is a highly technological process requiring sterile conditions.
2. There must be few side effects, if any, from vaccination.
Unpleasant side effects may discourage individuals in the population from being vaccinated.
3. The means of producing, storing and transporting the vaccine must be available.
This usually involves what?

A

This usually involves:

  1. Technologically advanced equipment
  2. Hygienic conditions
  3. Refrigerated transport
44
Q

It is important to understand that vaccination is used as a precautionary measure to prevent individuals contracting a disease.
It is not a means of treating individuals who already have the disease.
Some programmes of vaccination against diseases have had considerable success.
Yet, in other instances, similar measures have been less successful.
The success of a vaccination programme depends on a number of factors:
1. A suitable vaccine must be economically available in sufficient quantities to immunise most of the vulnerable population.
The development of new vaccines is a highly technological process requiring sterile conditions.
2. There must be few side effects, if any, from vaccination.
Unpleasant side effects may discourage individuals in the population from being vaccinated.
3. The means of producing, storing and transporting the vaccine must be available.
This usually involves technologically advanced equipment, hygienic conditions and refrigerated transport.
4. It must be possible to vaccinate who to produce what?

A

It must be possible to vaccinate the vast majority of the vulnerable population to produce herd immunity

45
Q

Herd immunity

A

Herd immunity is when a sufficiently large proportion of the population has been vaccinated to make it difficult for a pathogen to spread within that population

46
Q

Why is herd immunity important?

A

Herd immunity is important, because it is never possible to vaccinate everyone in a large population

47
Q

Herd immunity is important, because it is never possible to vaccinate everyone in a large population.
Example

A

For example:
1. Babies
2. Very young children
are not vaccinated, because their immune system is not yet fully functional

48
Q

Herd immunity is important, because it is never possible to vaccinate everyone in a large population.
For example, babies and very young children are not vaccinated, because their immune system is not yet fully functional.
It could also be dangerous to vaccinate who?

A

It could also be dangerous to vaccinate those who:
1. Are ill
Or,
2. Have compromised immune systems

49
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in who?

A

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals

50
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example who?

A

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems

51
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:

  1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
  2. The pathogen may do what?
A

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because the pathogen may mutate frequently

52
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:

  1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
  2. The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that what?
A

The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that its antigens change suddenly rather than gradually

53
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
2. The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that its antigens change suddenly rather than gradually.
What does this mean?

A

This means that vaccines suddenly become ineffective

54
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
2. The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that its antigens change suddenly rather than gradually.
This means that vaccines suddenly become ineffective, because what?

A

This means that vaccines suddenly become ineffective, because the new antigens on the pathogen are no longer recognised by the immune system

55
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
2. The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that its antigens change suddenly rather than gradually.
This means that vaccines suddenly become ineffective, because the new antigens on the pathogen are no longer recognised by the immune system.
As a result, the immune system does not do what?

A

As a result, the immune system does not produce the antibodies to destroy the pathogen

56
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
2. The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that its antigens change suddenly rather than gradually.
This means that vaccines suddenly become ineffective, because the new antigens on the pathogen are no longer recognised by the immune system.
As a result, the immune system does not produce the antibodies to destroy the pathogen.
This what happens with the influenza virus?

A

This antigenic variability happens with the influenza virus

57
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
2. The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that its antigens change suddenly rather than gradually.
This means that vaccines suddenly become ineffective, because the new antigens on the pathogen are no longer recognised by the immune system.
As a result, the immune system does not produce the antibodies to destroy the pathogen.
This antigenic variability happens with the influenza virus, which changes its antigens frequently.
3. Certain pathogens do what?

A

Certain pathogens ‘hide’ from the body’s immune system

58
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
2. The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that its antigens change suddenly rather than gradually.
This means that vaccines suddenly become ineffective, because the new antigens on the pathogen are no longer recognised by the immune system.
As a result, the immune system does not produce the antibodies to destroy the pathogen.
This antigenic variability happens with the influenza virus, which changes its antigens frequently.
3. Certain pathogens ‘hide’ from the body’s immune system, by doing what?

A

Certain pathogens ‘hide’ from the body’s immune system, by either:
1. Concealing themselves inside cells
Or,
2. Living in places out of reach

59
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
2. The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that its antigens change suddenly rather than gradually.
This means that vaccines suddenly become ineffective, because the new antigens on the pathogen are no longer recognised by the immune system.
As a result, the immune system does not produce the antibodies to destroy the pathogen.
This antigenic variability happens with the influenza virus, which changes its antigens frequently.
3. Certain pathogens ‘hide’ from the body’s immune system, by either concealing themselves inside cells or living in places out of reach, such as where?

A

Certain pathogens ‘hide’ from the body’s immune system, by either:
1. Concealing themselves inside cells
Or,
2. Living in places out of reach, such as within the intestines

60
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
2. The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that its antigens change suddenly rather than gradually.
This means that vaccines suddenly become ineffective, because the new antigens on the pathogen are no longer recognised by the immune system.
As a result, the immune system does not produce the antibodies to destroy the pathogen.
This antigenic variability happens with the influenza virus, which changes its antigens frequently.
3. Certain pathogens ‘hide’ from the body’s immune system, by either concealing themselves inside cells or living in places out of reach, such as within the intestines.
4. Individuals may have objections to vaccinations for what reasons?

A 
Individuals may have objections to vaccinations for:
1. Religious
2. Ethical
Or,
3. Medical
reasons
61
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
2. The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that its antigens change suddenly rather than gradually.
This means that vaccines suddenly become ineffective, because the new antigens on the pathogen are no longer recognised by the immune system.
As a result, the immune system does not produce the antibodies to destroy the pathogen.
This antigenic variability happens with the influenza virus, which changes its antigens frequently.
3. Certain pathogens ‘hide’ from the body’s immune system, by either concealing themselves inside cells or living in places out of reach, such as within the intestines.
4. Individuals may have objections to vaccinations for religious, ethical or medical reasons.
Example

A

For example, unfounded concerns over the:
1. Measles
2. Mumps
3. Rubella
(MMR) triple vaccine has led a number of parents to opt for separate vaccinations for their children

62
Q

Even when the criteria for successful vaccination are met, it can still prove extremely difficult to eradicate a disease, because:
1. Vaccination fails to induce immunity in certain individuals, for example people with defective immune systems.
2. The pathogen may mutate frequently, so that its antigens change suddenly rather than gradually.
This means that vaccines suddenly become ineffective, because the new antigens on the pathogen are no longer recognised by the immune system.
As a result, the immune system does not produce the antibodies to destroy the pathogen.
This antigenic variability happens with the influenza virus, which changes its antigens frequently.
3. Certain pathogens ‘hide’ from the body’s immune system, by either concealing themselves inside cells or living in places out of reach, such as within the intestines.
4. Individuals may have objections to vaccinations for religious, ethical or medical reasons.
For example, unfounded concerns over the measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) triple vaccine has led a number of parents to opt for separate vaccinations for their children or to do what?

A

For example, unfounded concerns over the measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) triple vaccine has led a number of parents to:
1. Opt for separate vaccinations for their children
Or,
2. Avoid vaccination altogether

63
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves what?

A

The:
1. Production of existing vaccines
2. Development of new ones
often involves the use of animals

64
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How what is this?

A

How acceptable is this?

65
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How acceptable is this?
2. Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes do what?

A

Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes cause long-term harm

66
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How acceptable is this?
2. Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes cause long-term harm.
3. On whom should vaccines be what?

A

On whom should vaccines be tested?

67
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How acceptable is this?
2. Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes cause long-term harm.
3. On whom should vaccines be tested?
How should such trials be what?

A

How should such trials be carried out?

68
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How acceptable is this?
2. Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes cause long-term harm.
3. On whom should vaccines be tested?
How should such trials be carried out?
To what extent should individuals be asked to accept risk in what?

A

To what extent should individuals be asked to accept risk in the interests of public health?

69
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How acceptable is this?
2. Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes cause long-term harm.
3. On whom should vaccines be tested?
How should such trials be carried out?
To what extent should individuals be asked to accept risk in the interests of public health?
4. Is it acceptable to trial a new vaccine with unknown health risks only in a country where what, on the basis that the population there has what?

A

Is it acceptable to trial a new vaccine with unknown health risks only in a country where the targeted disease is common, on the basis that the population there has most to gain, if it proves successful?

70
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How acceptable is this?
2. Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes cause long-term harm.
3. On whom should vaccines be tested?
How should such trials be carried out?
To what extent should individuals be asked to accept risk in the interests of public health?
4. Is it acceptable to trial a new vaccine with unknown health risks only in a country where the targeted disease is common, on the basis that the population there has most to gain, if it proves successful?
5. To be fully effective, who should be vaccinated?

A

To be fully effective:
1. The majority
2. Preferably all
,of the population should be vaccinated

71
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How acceptable is this?
2. Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes cause long-term harm.
3. On whom should vaccines be tested?
How should such trials be carried out?
To what extent should individuals be asked to accept risk in the interests of public health?
4. Is it acceptable to trial a new vaccine with unknown health risks only in a country where the targeted disease is common, on the basis that the population there has most to gain, if it proves successful?
5. To be fully effective, the majority, and preferably all, of the population should be vaccinated.
Is it right, in the interests of everyone’s health, that vaccination should be what?

A

Is it right, in the interests of everyone’s health, that vaccination should be compulsory?

72
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How acceptable is this?
2. Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes cause long-term harm.
3. On whom should vaccines be tested?
How should such trials be carried out?
To what extent should individuals be asked to accept risk in the interests of public health?
4. Is it acceptable to trial a new vaccine with unknown health risks only in a country where the targeted disease is common, on the basis that the population there has most to gain, if it proves successful?
5. To be fully effective, the majority, and preferably all, of the population should be vaccinated.
Is it right, in the interests of everyone’s health, that vaccination should be compulsory?
If so, should this be at any time, or just when there is a potential what?

A

If so, should this be at:
1. Any time
Or,
2. Just when there is a potential epidemic

73
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How acceptable is this?
2. Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes cause long-term harm.
3. On whom should vaccines be tested?
How should such trials be carried out?
To what extent should individuals be asked to accept risk in the interests of public health?
4. Is it acceptable to trial a new vaccine with unknown health risks only in a country where the targeted disease is common, on the basis that the population there has most to gain, if it proves successful?
5. To be fully effective, the majority, and preferably all, of the population should be vaccinated.
Is it right, in the interests of everyone’s health, that vaccination should be compulsory?
If so, should this be at any time, or just when there is a potential epidemic?
Can people opt out?
If so, on what grounds - Religious belief, medical circumstances, personal belief?
6. Should expensive vaccination programmes continue when a disease is almost what?

A

Should expensive vaccination programmes continue when a disease is almost eradicated?

74
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How acceptable is this?
2. Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes cause long-term harm.
3. On whom should vaccines be tested?
How should such trials be carried out?
To what extent should individuals be asked to accept risk in the interests of public health?
4. Is it acceptable to trial a new vaccine with unknown health risks only in a country where the targeted disease is common, on the basis that the population there has most to gain, if it proves successful?
5. To be fully effective, the majority, and preferably all, of the population should be vaccinated.
Is it right, in the interests of everyone’s health, that vaccination should be compulsory?
If so, should this be at any time, or just when there is a potential epidemic?
Can people opt out?
If so, on what grounds - Religious belief, medical circumstances, personal belief?
6. Should expensive vaccination programmes continue when a disease is almost eradicated, even though this might mean what for the treatment of other diseases?

A

Should expensive vaccination programmes continue when a disease is almost eradicated, even though this might mean less money for the treatment of other diseases?

75
Q

As vaccinations have saved millions of lives, it is easy to accept vaccination programmes without question.
However, they do raise ethical issues that need to be addressed if such programmes are to command widespread support.
The production and use of vaccines raises the following questions:
1. The production of existing vaccines and the development of new ones often involves the use of animals.
How acceptable is this?
2. Vaccines have side-effects that may sometimes cause long-term harm.
3. On whom should vaccines be tested?
How should such trials be carried out?
To what extent should individuals be asked to accept risk in the interests of public health?
4. Is it acceptable to trial a new vaccine with unknown health risks only in a country where the targeted disease is common, on the basis that the population there has most to gain, if it proves successful?
5. To be fully effective, the majority, and preferably all, of the population should be vaccinated.
Is it right, in the interests of everyone’s health, that vaccination should be compulsory?
If so, should this be at any time, or just when there is a potential epidemic?
Can people opt out?
If so, on what grounds - Religious belief, medical circumstances, personal belief?
6. Should expensive vaccination programmes continue when a disease is almost eradicated, even though this might mean less money for the treatment of other diseases?
7. How can any individual health risks from vaccination be balanced against the advantages of what?

A

How can any individual health risks from vaccination be balanced against the advantages of controlling a disease for the benefit of the population at large

76
Q

Ring vaccination

A

Ring vaccination is vaccinating all people around the victim

77
Q

Ring vaccination is vaccinating all people around the victim.
Ring vaccination contains the spread of a pathogen where?

A

Ring vaccination contains the spread of a pathogen within the ring

78
Q

Ring vaccination is vaccinating all people around the victim.
Ring vaccination contains the spread of a pathogen within the ring and stops what?

A

Ring vaccination:

  1. Contains the spread of a pathogen within the ring
  2. Stops transmission
79
Q

Ring vaccination is vaccinating all people around the victim.
Ring vaccination contains the spread of a pathogen within the ring and stops transmission.
You will have to trace and isolate contacts and there are what restrictions?

A

You will have to trace and isolate contacts and there are travel restrictions

80
Q

How many different types of vaccine are there?

A

There are 6 different types of vaccine:

  1. Live vaccines - Live pathogens
  2. Dead vaccines - Killed pathogens
  3. Attenuated vaccines - Weakened pathogens
  4. Toxoid vaccines - Toxins made harmless
  5. DNA vaccines
  6. Edible vaccines
81
Q

Why don’t vaccines cause illness?

A

Vaccines don’t cause illness, because they may contain:
1. An inactivated form of the pathogen, killed by heat treatment
2. An attenuated form of the pathogen
Or,
3. Isolated antigens from the pathogen

82
Q

Vaccines don’t cause illness, because they may contain an inactivated form of the pathogen, killed by heat treatment (which leaves what intact), an attenuated form of the pathogen or isolated antigens from the pathogen?

A

Vaccines don’t cause illness, because they may contain:
1. An inactivated form of the pathogen, killed by heat treatment (which leaves the immune-stimulating antigens intact)
2. An attenuated form of the pathogen
Or,
3. Isolated antigens from the pathogen

83
Q

Vaccines don’t cause illness, because they may contain an inactivated form of the pathogen, killed by heat treatment (which leaves the immune-stimulating antigens intact), an attenuated form of the pathogen or isolated antigens from the pathogen, such as what?

A

Vaccines don’t cause illness, because they may contain:
1. An inactivated form of the pathogen, killed by heat treatment (which leaves the immune-stimulating antigens intact)
2. An attenuated form of the pathogen
Or,
3. Isolated antigens from the pathogen, such as cell-surface proteins

84
Q

Attenuated

A

Attenuated means less virulent

85
Q

Why do viruses mutate more often?

A

Viruses mutate more often, because viruses have RNA, not DNA

86
Q

Viruses mutate more often, because viruses have RNA, not DNA, causing what?

A

Viruses mutate more often, because viruses have RNA, not DNA, causing their surface antigens to change shape

87
Q

Viruses mutate more often, because viruses have RNA, not DNA, causing their surface antigens to change shape.
Describe an antigenic drift

A

An antigenic drift is when antigens change:

  1. Slowly
  2. Only slightly
88
Q

Viruses mutate more often, because viruses have RNA, not DNA, causing their surface antigens to change shape.
Describe an antigenic shift

A

An antigenic shift is when antigens change:

  1. Suddenly
  2. Completely
89
Q

Viruses mutate more often, because viruses have RNA, not DNA, causing their surface antigens to change shape.
An antigenic shift is when antigens change suddenly and completely, which equals what?

A

An antigenic shift is when antigens change:
1. Suddenly
2. Completely
,which equals chaos

SAJID A Level AQA Biology (69 decks)

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