3.4: Eukaryotic cell structure Flashcards
1
Q
Each cell can be regarded as a what compartment?
A
Each cell can be regarded as a metabolic compartment
2
Q
Each cell can be regarded as a metabolic compartment, a separate place where what occur?
A
Each cell can be regarded as a metabolic compartment, a separate place where the chemical processes of that cell occur
3
Q
Each cell can be regarded as a metabolic compartment, a separate place where the chemical processes of that cell occur.
Cells are often adapted to perform a particular function.
Depending on that function, each cell type has an internal structure that suits it for its job.
This is known as the what of a the cell?
A
This is known as the ultrastructure of the cell
4
Q
Each cell can be regarded as a metabolic compartment, a separate place where the chemical processes of that cell occur.
Cells are often adapted to perform a particular function.
Depending on that function, each cell type has an internal structure that suits it for its job.
This is known as the ultrastructure of the cell.
Eukaryotic cells have a distinct nucleus and possess membrane-bounded organelles.
They differ from prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria.
Using an electron microscope, we can see the structure of what?
A
Using an electron microscope, we can see the structure of organelles within cells
5
Q
What is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell?
A
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell
6
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s what material?
A
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material
7
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s what?
A
The nucleus:
- Contains the organism’s hereditary material
- Controls the cell’s activities
8
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
The nucleus is usually what?
A
The nucleus is usually spherical
9
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
The nucleus is usually spherical and between how long in diameter?
A
The nucleus is:
- Usually spherical
- Between 10 and 20 μm in diameter
10
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a what?
A
The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus
11
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is what?
A
Its outer membrane is continuous
12
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with what?
A
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell
13
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has what on its surface?
A
Its outer membrane:
- Is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell
- Often has ribosomes on its surface
14
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has ribosomes on its surface.
It controls what?
A
The nuclear envelope controls the:
1. Entry
2. Exit
of materials in and out of the nucleus
15
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has ribosomes on its surface.
The nuclear envelope controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the nucleus and contains what?
A
The nuclear envelope:
- Controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the nucleus
- Contains the reactions taking place within it
16
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has ribosomes on its surface.
The nuclear envelope controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the nucleus and contains the reactions taking place within it.
2. Nuclear pores allow what?
A
Nuclear pores allow the passage of large molecules out of the nucleus
17
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has ribosomes on its surface.
The nuclear envelope controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the nucleus and contains the reactions taking place within it.
2. Nuclear pores allow the passage of large molecules, such as what, out of the nucleus?
A
Nuclear pores allow the passage of large molecules, such as messenger RNA, out of the nucleus
18
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has ribosomes on its surface.
The nuclear envelope controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the nucleus and contains the reactions taking place within it.
2. Nuclear pores allow the passage of large molecules, such as messenger RNA, out of the nucleus.
There are typically around how many pores in each nucleus?
A
There are typically around 3,000 pores in each nucleus
19
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has ribosomes on its surface.
The nuclear envelope controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the nucleus and contains the reactions taking place within it.
2. Nuclear pores allow the passage of large molecules, such as messenger RNA, out of the nucleus.
There are typically around 3,000 pores in each nucleus, each how long in diameter?
A
There are typically around 3,000 pores in each nucleus, each 40 - 100 nm in diameter
20
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has ribosomes on its surface.
The nuclear envelope controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the nucleus and contains the reactions taking place within it.
2. Nuclear pores allow the passage of large molecules, such as messenger RNA, out of the nucleus.
There are typically around 3,000 pores in each nucleus, each 40 - 100 nm in diameter.
3. Nucleoplasm is what?
A
Nucleoplasm is the:
1. Granular
2. Jelly-like
material that makes up the bulk of the nucleus
21
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has ribosomes on its surface.
The nuclear envelope controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the nucleus and contains the reactions taking place within it.
2. Nuclear pores allow the passage of large molecules, such as messenger RNA, out of the nucleus.
There are typically around 3,000 pores in each nucleus, each 40 - 100 nm in diameter.
3. Nucleoplasm is the granular and jelly-like material that makes up the bulk of the nucleus.
4. Chromosomes consist of what?
A
Chromosomes consist of:
1. Protein-bound
2. Linear
DNA
22
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has ribosomes on its surface.
The nuclear envelope controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the nucleus and contains the reactions taking place within it.
2. Nuclear pores allow the passage of large molecules, such as messenger RNA, out of the nucleus.
There are typically around 3,000 pores in each nucleus, each 40 - 100 nm in diameter.
3. Nucleoplasm is the granular and jelly-like material that makes up the bulk of the nucleus.
4. Chromosomes consist of protein-bound, linear DNA.
5. The nucleolus is a what?
A
The nucleolus is a small spherical region within the nucleoplasm
23
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has ribosomes on its surface.
The nuclear envelope controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the nucleus and contains the reactions taking place within it.
2. Nuclear pores allow the passage of large molecules, such as messenger RNA, out of the nucleus.
There are typically around 3,000 pores in each nucleus, each 40 - 100 nm in diameter.
3. Nucleoplasm is the granular and jelly-like material that makes up the bulk of the nucleus.
4. Chromosomes consist of protein-bound, linear DNA.
5. The nucleolus is a small spherical region within the nucleoplasm.
There may be what in a nucleus?
A
There may be more than one nucleolus in a nucleus
24
Q
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism’s hereditary material and controls the cell’s activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts:
1. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Its outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and often has ribosomes on its surface.
The nuclear envelope controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the nucleus and contains the reactions taking place within it.
2. Nuclear pores allow the passage of large molecules, such as messenger RNA, out of the nucleus.
There are typically around 3,000 pores in each nucleus, each 40 - 100 nm in diameter.
3. Nucleoplasm is the granular and jelly-like material that makes up the bulk of the nucleus.
4. Chromosomes consist of protein-bound, linear DNA.
5. The nucleolus is a small spherical region within the nucleoplasm.
There may be more than one nucleolus in a nucleus.
The nucleolus does what?
A
The nucleolus:
- Manufactures ribosomal RNA
- Assembles the ribosomes
25
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism's hereditary material and controls the cell's activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts, the nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, chromosomes and the nucleolus.
The functions of the nucleus are to:
1. Act as what?
The functions of the nucleus are to act as the control centre of the cell
26
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism's hereditary material and controls the cell's activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts, the nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, chromosomes and the nucleolus.
The functions of the nucleus are to:
1. Act as the control centre of the cell through what?
The functions of the nucleus are to act as the control centre of the cell through the production of:
1. mRNA
2. tRNA
27
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism's hereditary material and controls the cell's activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts, the nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, chromosomes and the nucleolus.
The functions of the nucleus are to:
1. Act as the control centre of the cell through the production of mRNA and tRNA and hence what?
The functions of the nucleus are to act as the control centre of the cell through the production of:
1. mRNA
2. tRNA
3. Hence protein synthesis
28
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism's hereditary material and controls the cell's activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts, the nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, chromosomes and the nucleolus.
The functions of the nucleus are to:
1. Act as the control centre of the cell through the production of mRNA and tRNA and hence protein synthesis.
2. Retain what?
The functions of the nucleus are to retain the genetic material of the cell
29
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism's hereditary material and controls the cell's activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts, the nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, chromosomes and the nucleolus.
The functions of the nucleus are to:
1. Act as the control centre of the cell through the production of mRNA and tRNA and hence protein synthesis.
2. Retain the genetic material of the cell in the form of what?
The functions of the nucleus are to retain the genetic material of the cell in the form of:
1. DNA
2. Chromosomes
30
The nucleus is the most prominent feature of a eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus contains the organism's hereditary material and controls the cell's activities.
Usually spherical and between 10 and 20 μm in diameter, the nucleus has a number of parts, the nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, chromosomes and the nucleolus.
The functions of the nucleus are to:
1. Act as the control centre of the cell through the production of mRNA and tRNA and hence protein synthesis.
2. Retain the genetic material of the cell in the form of DNA and chromosomes.
3. Manufacture what?
The functions of the nucleus are to manufacture:
1. Ribosomal RNA
2. Ribosomes
31
Mitochondria are usually what?
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped
32
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and how long in length?
Mitochondria:
1. Are usually rod-shaped
2. 1 - 10 μm in length
33
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and 1 - 10 μm in length.
Mitochondria are made up of the following structures:
1. Around the organelle is a what?
Around the organelle is a double membrane
34
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and 1 - 10 μm in length.
Mitochondria are made up of the following structures:
1. Around the organelle is a double membrane that does what?
Around the organelle is a double membrane that controls the:
1. Entry
2. Exit
of material
35
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and 1 - 10 μm in length.
Mitochondria are made up of the following structures:
1. Around the organelle is a double membrane that controls the entry and exit of material.
The inner of the 2 membranes is what?
The inner of the 2 membranes is folded
36
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and 1 - 10 μm in length.
Mitochondria are made up of the following structures:
1. Around the organelle is a double membrane that controls the entry and exit of material.
The inner of the 2 membranes is folded to do what?
The inner of the 2 membranes is folded to form extensions known as cristae
37
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and 1 - 10 μm in length.
Mitochondria are made up of the following structures:
1. Around the organelle is a double membrane that controls the entry and exit of material.
The inner of the 2 membranes is folded to form extensions known as cristae.
2. Cristae are extensions of the inner membrane, which in some species do what?
Cristae are extensions of the inner membrane, which in some species extend across the whole width of the mitochondrion
38
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and 1 - 10 μm in length.
Mitochondria are made up of the following structures:
1. Around the organelle is a double membrane that controls the entry and exit of material.
The inner of the 2 membranes is folded to form extensions known as cristae.
2. Cristae are extensions of the inner membrane, which in some species extend the whole width of the mitochondrion.
These provide what?
Cristae provide a large surface area
39
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and 1 - 10 μm in length.
Mitochondria are made up of the following structures:
1. Around the organelle is a double membrane that controls the entry and exit of material.
The inner of the 2 membranes is folded to form extensions known as cristae.
2. Cristae are extensions of the inner membrane, which in some species extend the whole width of the mitochondrion.
Cristae provide a large surface area for what?
Cristae provide a large surface area for the attachment of:
1. Enzymes
2. Other proteins involved in respiration
40
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and 1 - 10 μm in length.
Mitochondria are made up of the following structures:
1. Around the organelle is a double membrane that controls the entry and exit of material.
The inner of the 2 membranes is folded to form extensions known as cristae.
2. Cristae are extensions of the inner membrane, which in some species extend the whole width of the mitochondrion.
Cristae provide a large surface area for the attachment of enzymes and other proteins involved in respiration.
3. The matrix makes up what?
The matrix makes up the remainder of the mitochondrion
41
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and 1 - 10 μm in length.
Mitochondria are made up of the following structures:
1. Around the organelle is a double membrane that controls the entry and exit of material.
The inner of the 2 membranes is folded to form extensions known as cristae.
2. Cristae are extensions of the inner membrane, which in some species extend the whole width of the mitochondrion.
Cristae provide a large surface area for the attachment of enzymes and other proteins involved in respiration.
3. The matrix makes up the remainder of the mitochondrion.
It contains what?
The matrix contains:
1. Protein
2. Lipids
3. Ribosomes
4. DNA
42
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and 1 - 10 μm in length.
Mitochondria are made up of the following structures:
1. Around the organelle is a double membrane that controls the entry and exit of material.
The inner of the 2 membranes is folded to form extensions known as cristae.
2. Cristae are extensions of the inner membrane, which in some species extend the whole width of the mitochondrion.
Cristae provide a large surface area for the attachment of enzymes and other proteins involved in respiration.
3. The matrix makes up the remainder of the mitochondrion.
The matrix contains protein, lipids, ribosomes and DNA that allows the mitochondria to do what?
```
The matrix contains:
1. Protein
2. Lipids
3. Ribosomes
4. DNA
that allows the mitochondria to control the production of some of their own proteins
```
43
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped and 1 - 10 μm in length.
Mitochondria are made up of the following structures:
1. Around the organelle is a double membrane that controls the entry and exit of material.
The inner of the 2 membranes is folded to form extensions known as cristae.
2. Cristae are extensions of the inner membrane, which in some species extend the whole width of the mitochondrion.
Cristae provide a large surface area for the attachment of enzymes and other proteins involved in respiration.
3. The matrix makes up the remainder of the mitochondrion.
The matrix contains protein, lipids, ribosomes and DNA that allows the mitochondria to control the production of some of their own proteins.
Many enzymes involved in respiration are found where?
Many enzymes involved in respiration are found in the matrix
44
Mitochondria are the sites of the aerobic stages of respiration.
They are therefore responsible for the production of what?
Mitochondria are therefore responsible for the production of the energy-carrier molecule, ATP
45
Mitochondria are the sites of the aerobic stages of respiration.
Mitochondria are therefore responsible for the production of the energy-carrier molecule, ATP, from what?
Mitochondria are therefore responsible for the production of the energy-carrier molecule, ATP, from respiratory substrates
46
Mitochondria are the sites of the aerobic stages of respiration.
Mitochondria are therefore responsible for the production of the energy-carrier molecule, ATP, from respiratory substrates, such as what?
Mitochondria are therefore responsible for the production of the energy-carrier molecule, ATP, from respiratory substrates, such as glucose
47
Mitochondria are the sites of the aerobic stages of respiration.
Mitochondria are therefore responsible for the production of the energy-carrier molecule, ATP, from respiratory substrates, such as glucose.
Because of this, what?
Because of this, the:
1. Number and size of the mitochondria
2. Number of their cristae
,are high in cells that have a high level of metabolic activity
48
Mitochondria are the sites of the aerobic stages of respiration.
Mitochondria are therefore responsible for the production of the energy-carrier molecule, ATP, from respiratory substrates, such as glucose.
Because of this, the number and size of the mitochondria and the number of their cristae, are high in cells that have a high level of metabolic activity and therefore require what?
Because of this, the number and size of the mitochondria and the number of their cristae, are high in cells that:
1. Have a high level of metabolic activity
2. Therefore require a plentiful supply of ATP
49
Mitochondria are the sites of the aerobic stages of respiration.
Mitochondria are therefore responsible for the production of the energy-carrier molecule, ATP, from respiratory substrates, such as glucose.
Because of this, the number and size of the mitochondria and the number of their cristae, are high in cells that have a high level of metabolic activity and therefore require a plentiful supply of ATP.
Examples of metabolically active cells include what?
Examples of metabolically active cells include:
1. Muscle
2. Epithelial
cells
50
Mitochondria are the sites of the aerobic stages of respiration.
Mitochondria are therefore responsible for the production of the energy-carrier molecule, ATP, from respiratory substrates, such as glucose.
Because of this, the number and size of the mitochondria and the number of their cristae, are high in cells that have a high level of metabolic activity and therefore require a plentiful supply of ATP.
Examples of metabolically active cells include muscle and epithelial cells.
Epithelial cells in the intestines require what?
Epithelial cells in the intestines require a lot of ATP
51
Mitochondria are the sites of the aerobic stages of respiration.
Mitochondria are therefore responsible for the production of the energy-carrier molecule, ATP, from respiratory substrates, such as glucose.
Because of this, the number and size of the mitochondria and the number of their cristae, are high in cells that have a high level of metabolic activity and therefore require a plentiful supply of ATP.
Examples of metabolically active cells include muscle and epithelial cells.
Epithelial cells in the intestines require a lot of ATP in the process of doing what?
Epithelial cells in the intestines require a lot of ATP in the process of absorbing substances from the intestines by active transport
52
Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically what?
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically:
1. Disc-shaped
2. 2 - 10 μm long
3. 1 μm in diameter
53
Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically disc-shaped, 2 - 10 μm long and 1 μm in diameter.
The main features of chloroplasts are that:
1. The chloroplast envelope is a what?
The main features of chloroplasts are that the chloroplast envelope is a double plasma membrane that surrounds the organelle
54
Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically disc-shaped, 2 - 10 μm long and 1 μm in diameter.
The main features of chloroplasts are that:
1. The chloroplast envelope is a double plasma membrane that surrounds the organelle.
It is highly selective in what?
The chloroplast envelope is highly selective in what it allows to:
1. Enter
2. Leave
the chloroplast
55
Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically disc-shaped, 2 - 10 μm long and 1 μm in diameter.
The main features of chloroplasts are that:
1. The chloroplast envelope is a double plasma membrane that surrounds the organelle.
The chloroplast envelope is highly selective in what it allows to enter and leave the chloroplast.
2. The grana are what?
The main features of chloroplasts are that the grana are stacks of up to 100 disc-like structures called thylakoids
56
Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically disc-shaped, 2 - 10 μm long and 1 μm in diameter.
The main features of chloroplasts are that:
1. The chloroplast envelope is a double plasma membrane that surrounds the organelle.
The chloroplast envelope is highly selective in what it allows to enter and leave the chloroplast.
2. The grana are stacks up of to 100 disc-like structures called thylakoids.
Within the thylakoids is what?
Within the thylakoids is the photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll
57
Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically disc-shaped, 2 - 10 μm long and 1 μm in diameter.
The main features of chloroplasts are that:
1. The chloroplast envelope is a double plasma membrane that surrounds the organelle.
The chloroplast envelope is highly selective in what it allows to enter and leave the chloroplast.
2. The grana are stacks up of to 100 disc-like structures called thylakoids.
Within the thylakoids is the photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll.
Some thylakoids have what?
Some thylakoids have tubular extensions
58
Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically disc-shaped, 2 - 10 μm long and 1 μm in diameter.
The main features of chloroplasts are that:
1. The chloroplast envelope is a double plasma membrane that surrounds the organelle.
The chloroplast envelope is highly selective in what it allows to enter and leave the chloroplast.
2. The grana are stacks up of to 100 disc-like structures called thylakoids.
Within the thylakoids is the photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll.
Some thylakoids have tubular extensions that do what?
Some thylakoids have tubular extensions that join up with thylakoids in adjacent grana
59
Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically disc-shaped, 2 - 10 μm long and 1 μm in diameter.
The main features of chloroplasts are that:
1. The chloroplast envelope is a double plasma membrane that surrounds the organelle.
The chloroplast envelope is highly selective in what it allows to enter and leave the chloroplast.
2. The grana are stacks up of to 100 disc-like structures called thylakoids.
Within the thylakoids is the photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll.
Some thylakoids have tubular extensions that join up with thylakoids in adjacent grana.
The grana are where what takes place?
The grana are where the first stage of photosynthesis (light absorption) takes place
60
Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically disc-shaped, 2 - 10 μm long and 1 μm in diameter.
The main features of chloroplasts are that:
1. The chloroplast envelope is a double plasma membrane that surrounds the organelle.
The chloroplast envelope is highly selective in what it allows to enter and leave the chloroplast.
2. The grana are stacks up of to 100 disc-like structures called thylakoids.
Within the thylakoids is the photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll.
Some thylakoids have tubular extensions that join up with thylakoids in adjacent grana.
The grana are where the first stage of photosynthesis (light absorption) takes place.
3. The stroma is what?
The stroma is a fluid-filled matrix where the second stage of photosynthesis (synthesis of sugars) takes place
61
Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically disc-shaped, 2 - 10 μm long and 1 μm in diameter.
The main features of chloroplasts are that:
1. The chloroplast envelope is a double plasma membrane that surrounds the organelle.
The chloroplast envelope is highly selective in what it allows to enter and leave the chloroplast.
2. The grana are stacks up of to 100 disc-like structures called thylakoids.
Within the thylakoids is the photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll.
Some thylakoids have tubular extensions that join up with thylakoids in adjacent grana.
The grana are where the first stage of photosynthesis (light absorption) takes place.
3. The stroma is a fluid-filled matrix where the second stage of photosynthesis (synthesis of sugars) takes place.
Within the stroma are a number of what?
Within the stroma are a number of other structures
62
Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts vary in shape and size, but are typically disc-shaped, 2 - 10 μm long and 1 μm in diameter.
The main features of chloroplasts are that:
1. The chloroplast envelope is a double plasma membrane that surrounds the organelle.
The chloroplast envelope is highly selective in what it allows to enter and leave the chloroplast.
2. The grana are stacks up of to 100 disc-like structures called thylakoids.
Within the thylakoids is the photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll.
Some thylakoids have tubular extensions that join up with thylakoids in adjacent grana.
The grana are where the first stage of photosynthesis (light absorption) takes place.
3. The stroma is a fluid-filled matrix where the second stage of photosynthesis (synthesis of sugars) takes place.
Within the stroma are a number of other structures, such as what?
Within the stroma are a number of other structures, such as starch grains
63
Chloroplasts have DNA and may have evolved from free-living prokaryotic cells, but they are what, not cells?
Chloroplasts:
1. Have DNA
2. May have evolved from free-living prokaryotic cells
,but they are organelles, not cells
64
Chloroplasts are adapted to their function of harvesting sunlight and carrying out photosynthesis in the following ways:
1. The granal membranes provide what?
The granal membranes provide a large surface area for:
1. The attachment of chlorophyll
2. Electron carriers
3. Enzymes
that carry out the first stage of photosynthesis
65
Chloroplasts are adapted to their function of harvesting sunlight and carrying out photosynthesis in the following ways:
1. The granal membranes provide a large surface area for the attachment of chlorophyll, electron carriers and enzymes that carry out the first stage of photosynthesis.
These chemicals are what?
These chemicals are attached to the membrane in a highly ordered fashion
66
Chloroplasts are adapted to their function of harvesting sunlight and carrying out photosynthesis in the following ways:
1. The granal membranes provide a large surface area for the attachment of chlorophyll, electron carriers and enzymes that carry out the first stage of photosynthesis.
These chemicals are attached to the membrane in a highly ordered fashion.
2. The fluid of the stroma possesses what?
The fluid of the stroma possesses all the enzymes needed to make sugars in the second stage of photosynthesis
67
Chloroplasts are adapted to their function of harvesting sunlight and carrying out photosynthesis in the following ways:
1. The granal membranes provide a large surface area for the attachment of chlorophyll, electron carriers and enzymes that carry out the first stage of photosynthesis.
These chemicals are attached to the membrane in a highly ordered fashion.
2. The fluid of the stroma possesses all the enzymes needed to make sugars in the second stage of photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts contain both what?
Chloroplasts contain both:
1. DNA
2. Ribosomes
68
Chloroplasts are adapted to their function of harvesting sunlight and carrying out photosynthesis in the following ways:
1. The granal membranes provide a large surface area for the attachment of chlorophyll, electron carriers and enzymes that carry out the first stage of photosynthesis.
These chemicals are attached to the membrane in a highly ordered fashion.
2. The fluid of the stroma possesses all the enzymes needed to make sugars in the second stage of photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts contain both DNA and ribosomes, so that they can do what?
Chloroplasts contain both DNA and ribosomes, so that they can:
1. Quickly
2. Easily
manufacture some of the proteins needed for photosynthesis
69
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is what?
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an:
1. Elaborate
2. Three-dimension
system of sheet-like membranes
70
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an elaborate, three-dimension system of sheet-like membranes, spreading through what?
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an:
1. Elaborate
2. Three-dimension
system of sheet-like membranes, spreading through the cytoplasm of the cells
71
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an elaborate, three-dimension system of sheet-like membranes, spreading through the cytoplasm of the cells.
It is what?
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is continuous
72
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an elaborate, three-dimension system of sheet-like membranes, spreading through the cytoplasm of the cells.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is continuous with the what?
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane
73
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an elaborate, three-dimension system of sheet-like membranes, spreading through the cytoplasm of the cells.
It is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.
The membranes do what?
The membranes enclose a network
74
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an elaborate, three-dimension system of sheet-like membranes, spreading through the cytoplasm of the cells.
It is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.
The membranes enclose a network of what?
The membranes enclose a network of:
1. Tubules
2. Flattened sacs called cisternae
75
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an elaborate, three-dimension system of sheet-like membranes, spreading through the cytoplasm of the cells.
It is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.
The membranes enclose a network of tubules and flattened sacs called cisternae.
How many types are endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are there?
There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER):
1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
76
There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) has what?
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) has ribosomes present on the outer surfaces of the membranes
77
There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) has ribosomes present on the outer surfaces of the membranes.
Its functions are to do what?
The functions of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) are to provide a:
1. Large surface area for the synthesis of proteins and glycoproteins
2. Pathway for the transport of materials throughout the cell
78
There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) has ribosomes present on the outer surfaces of the membranes.
Its functions are to provide a large surface area for the synthesis of proteins and glycoproteins and to provide a pathway for the transport of materials, especially what, throughout the cell?
The functions of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) are to provide a:
1. Large surface area for the synthesis of proteins and glycoproteins
2. Pathway for the transport of materials, especially proteins, throughout the cell
79
There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) lacks what?
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) lacks ribosomes on its surface
80
There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) lacks ribosomes on its surface and is often more what in appearance?
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER):
1. Lacks ribosomes
2. Is often more tubular in appearance
81
There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) lacks ribosomes on its surface and is often more tubular in appearance.
Its functions are to do what?
The functions of smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) are to synthesise, store and transport:
1. Lipids
2. Carbohydrates
82
There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
It follows that cells that manufacture and store large quantities of what have what?
It follows that cells that manufacture and store large quantities of:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Lipids
have a very extensive endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
83
There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
It follows that cells that manufacture and store large quantities of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids have a very extensive endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Such cells include what?
Such cells include:
1. Liver
2. Secretory cells
84
There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
It follows that cells that manufacture and store large quantities of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids have a very extensive endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Such cells include liver and secretory cells, for example what?
Such cells include liver and secretory cells, for example the epithelial cells that line the intestines
85
The Golgi apparatus occurs where?
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells
86
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the what in structure?
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure
87
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more what?
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact
88
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of what?
The Golgi apparatus consists of:
1. A stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs
Or,
2. Cisternae
89
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs, or cisternae, with small what?
The Golgi apparatus consists of:
1. A stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs
Or,
2. Cisternae
,with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles
90
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs, or cisternae, with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles.
The proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are what?
The:
1. Proteins
2. Lipids
produced by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence
91
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs, or cisternae, with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles.
The proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence.
The Golgi does what?
The Golgi modifies these proteins
92
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs, or cisternae, with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles.
The proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence.
The Golgi modifies these proteins, often adding what to them?
The Golgi modifies these proteins, often adding non-protein components to them
93
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs, or cisternae, with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles.
The proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence.
The Golgi modifies these proteins, often adding non-protein components, such as what, to them?
The Golgi modifies these proteins, often adding non-protein components, such as carbohydrates, to them
94
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs, or cisternae, with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles.
The proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence.
The Golgi modifies these proteins, often adding non-protein components, such as carbohydrates, to them.
It also does what?
The Golgi also 'labels' these proteins
95
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs, or cisternae, with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles.
The proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence.
The Golgi modifies these proteins, often adding non-protein components, such as carbohydrates, to them.
The Golgi also 'labels' these proteins, allowing them to be what?
The Golgi also 'labels' these proteins, allowing them to be:
1. Accurately sorted
2. Sent to their correct destination
96
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs, or cisternae, with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles.
The proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence.
The Golgi modifies these proteins, often adding non-protein components, such as carbohydrates, to them.
The Golgi also 'labels' these proteins, allowing them to be accurately sorted and sent to their correct destinations.
Once sorted, the modified proteins and lipids are what?
Once sorted, the modified:
1. Proteins
2. Lipids
are transported in Golgi vesicles
97
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs, or cisternae, with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles.
The proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence.
The Golgi modifies these proteins, often adding non-protein components, such as carbohydrates, to them.
The Golgi also 'labels' these proteins, allowing them to be accurately sorted and sent to their correct destinations.
Once sorted, the modified proteins and lipids are transported in Golgi vesicles, which are regularly what?
Once sorted, the modified:
1. Proteins
2. Lipids
are transported in Golgi vesicles, which are regularly pinched off from the ends of the Golgi cisternae
98
Each cell can be regarded as a metabolic compartment, a separate place where the chemical processes of that cell occur.
Cells are often adapted to perform a particular function.
Depending on that function, each cell type has an internal structure that suits it for its job.
This is known as the ultrastructure of the cell.
Eukaryotic cells have a distinct nucleus and possess what organelles?
Eukaryotic cells:
1. Have a distinct nucleus
2. Possess membrane-bounded organelles.
99
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs, or cisternae, with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles.
The proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence.
The Golgi modifies these proteins, often adding non-protein components, such as carbohydrates, to them.
The Golgi also 'labels' these proteins, allowing them to be accurately sorted and sent to their correct destinations.
Once sorted, the modified proteins and lipids are transported in Golgi vesicles, which are regularly pinched off from the ends of the Golgi cisternae.
These vesicles may do what?
These vesicles may move to the cell surface
100
The Golgi apparatus occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells and is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in structure, except that it is more compact.
It consists of a stack of membranes that make up flattened sacs, or cisternae, with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles.
The proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence.
The Golgi modifies these proteins, often adding non-protein components, such as carbohydrates, to them.
The Golgi also 'labels' these proteins, allowing them to be accurately sorted and sent to their correct destinations.
Once sorted, the modified proteins and lipids are transported in Golgi vesicles, which are regularly pinched off from the ends of the Golgi cisternae.
These vesicles may move to the cell surface, where they do what?
These vesicles may move to the cell surface, where they:
1. Fuse with the membrane
2. Release their contents to the outside
101
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to:
| 1. Do what to form glycoproteins?
```
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to add:
1. Carbohydrates
to
2. Proteins
to form glycoproteins
```
102
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to:
1. Add carbohydrates to proteins to form glycoproteins.
2. Produce what?
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to produce secretory enzymes
103
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to:
1. Add carbohydrates to proteins to form glycoproteins.
2. Produce secretory enzymes, such as what?
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to produce secretory enzymes, such as those secreted by the pancreas
104
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to:
1. Add carbohydrates to proteins to form glycoproteins.
2. Produce secretory enzymes, such as those secreted by the pancreas.
3. Secrete what?
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to secrete carbohydrates
105
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to:
1. Add carbohydrates to proteins to form glycoproteins.
2. Produce secretory enzymes, such as those secreted by the pancreas.
3. Secrete carbohydrates, such as what?
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to secrete carbohydrates, such as those used in making pant cell walls
106
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to:
1. Add carbohydrates to proteins to form glycoproteins.
2. Produce secretory enzymes, such as those secreted by the pancreas.
3. Secrete carbohydrates, such as those used in making pant cell walls.
4. Do what to lipids?
```
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to:
1. Transport
2. Modify
3. Store
lipids
```
107
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to:
1. Add carbohydrates to proteins to form glycoproteins.
2. Produce secretory enzymes, such as those secreted by the pancreas.
3. Secrete carbohydrates, such as those used in making pant cell walls.
4. Transport, modify and store lipids.
5. Form what?
The functions of the Golgi apparatus are to form lysosomes
108
The Golgi apparatus is especially well developed where?
The Golgi apparatus is especially well developed in secretory cells
109
The Golgi apparatus is especially well developed in secretory cells, such as what?
The Golgi apparatus is especially well developed in secretory cells, such as the epithelial cells that line the intestines
110
When are lysosomes formed?
Lysosomes are formed when the vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus contain enzymes such as:
1. Proteases
2. Lipases
111
Lysosomes are formed when the vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus contain enzymes such as proteases and lipases.
Lysosomes also contain what?
Lysosomes also contain lysozymes
112
Lysosomes are formed when the vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus contain enzymes such as proteases and lipases.
Lysosomes also contain lysozymes.
What are lysozymes?
Lysozymes are enzymes that hydrolyse the cell walls of certain bacteria
113
Lysosomes are formed when the vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus contain enzymes such as proteases and lipases.
Lysosomes also contain lysozymes.
Lysozymes are enzymes that hydrolyse the cell walls of certain bacteria.
As many as how many such enzymes may be contained in a single lysosome?
As many as 50 such enzymes may be contained in a single lysosome
114
Lysosomes are formed when the vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus contain enzymes such as proteases and lipases.
Lysosomes also contain lysozymes.
Lysozymes are enzymes that hydrolyse the cell walls of certain bacteria.
As many as 50 such enzymes may be contained in a single lysosome.
A lysosome is up to what in diameter?
A lysosome is up to 1.0 μm in diameter
115
Lysosomes are formed when the vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus contain enzymes such as proteases and lipases.
Lysosomes also contain lysozymes.
Lysozymes are enzymes that hydrolyse the cell walls of certain bacteria.
As many as 50 such enzymes may be contained in a single lysosome.
A lysosome is up to 1.0 μm in diameter.
What do lysosomes do to these enzymes?
Lysosomes isolate these enzymes from the rest of the cell
116
Lysosomes are formed when the vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus contain enzymes such as proteases and lipases.
Lysosomes also contain lysozymes.
Lysozymes are enzymes that hydrolyse the cell walls of certain bacteria.
As many as 50 such enzymes may be contained in a single lysosome.
A lysosome is up to 1.0 μm in diameter.
Lysosomes isolate these enzymes from the rest of the cell before doing what?
Lysosomes isolate these enzymes from the rest of the cell before releasing them
117
Lysosomes are formed when the vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus contain enzymes such as proteases and lipases.
Lysosomes also contain lysozymes.
Lysozymes are enzymes that hydrolyse the cell walls of certain bacteria.
As many as 50 such enzymes may be contained in a single lysosome.
A lysosome is up to 1.0 μm in diameter.
Lysosomes isolate these enzymes from the rest of the cell before releasing them, either to what?
Lysosomes isolate these enzymes from the rest of the cell before releasing them, either to:
1. The outside
Or,
2. Into a phagocytic vesicle within the cell
118
The functions of lysosomes are to:
| 1. Hydrolyse what?
The functions of lysosomes are to hydrolyse material ingested by phagocytic cells
119
The functions of lysosomes are to:
| 1. Hydrolyse material ingested by phagocytic cells, such as what?
The functions of lysosomes are to hydrolyse material ingested by phagocytic cells, such as:
1. White blood cells
2. Bacteria
120
The functions of lysosomes are to:
1. Hydrolyse material ingested by phagocytic cells, such as white blood cells and bacteria.
2. Release what to the outside of the cell (e what)?
The functions of lysosomes are to release enzymes to the outside of the cell (exocytosis)
121
The functions of lysosomes are to:
1. Hydrolyse material ingested by phagocytic cells, such as white blood cells and bacteria.
2. Release enzymes to the outside of the cell (exocytosis), in order to do what?
The functions of lysosomes are to release enzymes to the outside of the cell (exocytosis), in order to destroy material around the cell
122
The functions of lysosomes are to:
1. Hydrolyse material ingested by phagocytic cells, such as white blood cells and bacteria.
2. Release enzymes to the outside of the cell (exocytosis), in order to destroy material around the cell.
3. Digest what?
The functions of lysosomes are to digest worn out organelles
123
The functions of lysosomes are to:
1. Hydrolyse material ingested by phagocytic cells, such as white blood cells and bacteria.
2. Release enzymes to the outside of the cell (exocytosis), in order to destroy material around the cell.
3. Digest worn out organelles, so that what?
The functions of lysosomes are to digest worn out organelles, so that the useful chemicals they are made of can be re-used
124
The functions of lysosomes are to:
1. Hydrolyse material ingested by phagocytic cells, such as white blood cells and bacteria.
2. Release enzymes to the outside of the cell (exocytosis), in order to destroy material around the cell.
3. Digest worn out organelles, so that the useful chemicals they are made of can be re-used.
4. Completely break down what (a what)?
The functions of lysosomes are to completely break down cells after they have died (autolysis)
125
Given the roles that lysosomes perform, it is not surprising that they are especially abundant where?
Given the roles that lysosomes perform, it is not surprising that they are especially abundant in:
1. Secretory cells
2. Phagocytic cells
126
Given the roles that lysosomes perform, it is not surprising that they are especially abundant in secretory cells, such as what, and phagocytic cells?
Given the roles that lysosomes perform, it is not surprising that they are especially abundant in:
1. Secretory cells, such as epithelial cells
2. Phagocytic cells
127
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells
128
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells.
| Ribosomes may occur where or be associated with the what?
Ribosomes may:
1. Occur in the cytoplasm
Or,
2. Be associated with the RER
129
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells.
Ribosomes may occur in the cytoplasm or be associated with the RER.
How many types of ribosomes are there?
There are 2 types of ribosomes:
1. 80S
2. 70S
130
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells.
Ribosomes may occur in the cytoplasm or be associated with the RER.
There are 2 types of ribosomes, 80S and 70S, depending on what?
There are 2 types of ribosomes:
1. 80S
2. 70S
,depending on the cells in which they are found
131
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells.
Ribosomes may occur in the cytoplasm or be associated with the RER.
There are 2 types of ribosomes, 80S and 70S, depending on the cells in which they are found.
Where are 80S ribosomes found?
80S ribosomes are found in eukaryotic cells
132
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells.
Ribosomes may occur in the cytoplasm or be associated with the RER.
There are 2 types of ribosomes, 80S and 70S, depending on the cells in which they are found.
80S ribosomes are found in eukaryotic cells and are how long in diameter?
80S ribosomes are:
1. Found in eukaryotic cells
2. 25 nm in diameter
133
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells.
Ribosomes may occur in the cytoplasm or be associated with the RER.
There are 2 types of ribosomes, 80S and 70S, depending on the cells in which they are found.
70S ribosomes are found where?
70S ribosomes are found in:
1. Prokaryotic cells
2. Mitochondria
3. Chloroplasts
134
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells.
Ribosomes may occur in the cytoplasm or be associated with the RER.
There are 2 types of ribosomes, 80S and 70S, depending on the cells in which they are found.
70S ribosomes are found in prokaryotic cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts and are how big?
70S ribosomes are:
1. Found in prokaryotic cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts
2. Slightly smaller than 80S ribosomes
135
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells.
Ribosomes may occur in the cytoplasm or be associated with the RER.
There are 2 types of ribosomes, 80S and 70S, depending on the cells in which they are found.
Ribosomes have how many subunits?
Ribosomes have 2 subunits, one:
1. Large
2. Small
136
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells.
Ribosomes may occur in the cytoplasm or be associated with the RER.
There are 2 types of ribosomes, 80S and 70S, depending on the cells in which they are found.
Ribosomes have 2 subunits, one large and one small, each of which contains what?
Ribosomes have 2 subunits, one large and one small, each of which contains:
1. Ribosomal RNA
2. Protein
137
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells.
Ribosomes may occur in the cytoplasm or be associated with the RER.
There are 2 types of ribosomes, 80S and 70S, depending on the cells in which they are found.
Ribosomes have 2 subunits, one large and one small, each of which contains ribosomal RNA and protein.
Despite their small size, ribosomes do what that they can account for up to 25% of the what of a cell?
Despite their small size, ribosomes occur in such vast numbers that they can account for up to 25% of the dry mass of a cell
138
Ribosomes are small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells.
Ribosomes may occur in the cytoplasm or be associated with the RER.
There are 2 types of ribosomes, 80S and 70S, depending on the cells in which they are found.
Ribosomes have 2 subunits, one large and one small, each of which contains ribosomal RNA and protein.
Despite their small size, ribosomes occur in such vast numbers that they can account for up to 25% of the dry mass of a cell.
Ribosomes are the site of what?
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis
139
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of what?
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils
140
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of what?
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose
141
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in what?
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix
142
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have what?
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength
143
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to what?
Cellulose microfibrils:
1. Have considerable strength
2. So contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall
144
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall.
The features of cell walls are that:
1. They consist of a number of what?
The features of cell walls are that they consist of a number of polysaccharides
145
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall.
The features of cell walls are that:
1. They consist of a number of polysaccharides, such as what?
The features of cell walls are that they consist of a number of polysaccharides, such as cellulose
146
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall.
The features of cell walls are that:
1. They consist of a number of polysaccharides, such as cellulose.
2. There is a what?
The features of cell walls are that there is a thin layer
147
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall.
The features of cell walls are that:
1. They consist of a number of polysaccharides, such as cellulose.
2. There is a thin layer, called what?
The features of cell walls are that there is a thin layer, called the middle lamella
148
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall.
The features of cell walls are that:
1. They consist of a number of polysaccharides, such as cellulose.
2. There is a thin layer, called the middle lamella, which does what?
The features of cell walls are that there is a thin layer, called the middle lamella, which:
1. Marks the boundary between adjacent cell walls
2. Cements adjacent cells together
149
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall.
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to:
1. Provide what?
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to provide mechanical strength
150
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall.
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to:
1. Provide mechanical strength, in order to do what?
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to provide mechanical strength, in order to prevent the cell bursting
151
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall.
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to:
1. Provide mechanical strength, in order to prevent the cell bursting under what?
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to provide mechanical strength, in order to prevent the cell bursting under the pressure created by the osmotic entry of water
152
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall.
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to:
1. Provide mechanical strength, in order to prevent the cell bursting under the pressure created by the osmotic entry of water.
2. Do what as a whole?
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to provide mechanical strength to the plant as a whole
153
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall.
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to:
1. Provide mechanical strength, in order to prevent the cell bursting under the pressure created by the osmotic entry of water.
2. Provide mechanical strength to the plant as a whole.
3. Allow water to do what?
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to allow water to pass along it
154
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
Cellulose microfibrils have considerable strength and so contribute to the overall strength of the cell wall.
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to:
1. Provide mechanical strength, in order to prevent the cell bursting under the pressure created by the osmotic entry of water.
2. Provide mechanical strength to the plant as a whole.
3. Allow water to pass along it and so contribute to what?
The functions of the cellulose cell wall are to:
1. Allow water to pass along it
2. So contribute to the movement of water through the plant
155
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
The cell walls of algae are made up of what?
The cell walls of algae are made up of either:
1. Cellulose or glycoproteins
Or,
2. A mixture of both
156
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
The cell walls of fungi do not contain what?
The cell walls of fungi do not contain cellulose
157
A characteristic of all plant cells, the cell wall consists of microfibrils of the polysaccharide cellulose, embedded in a matrix.
The cell walls of fungi do not contain cellulose, but comprise what?
The cell walls of fungi do not contain cellulose, but comprise a mixture of:
1. A nitrogen-containing polysaccharide called chitin
2. A polysaccharide called glycan
3. Glycoproteins
158
What may be termed a vacuole?
A fluid-filled sac bounded by a single membrane may be termed a vacuole
159
A fluid-filled sac bounded by a single membrane may be termed a vacuole.
Within what plant cells, there is usually one what?
Within mature plant cells, there is usually one large central vacuole
160
A fluid-filled sac bounded by a single membrane may be termed a vacuole.
Within mature plant cells, there is usually one large central vacuole.
What is the tonoplast?
The tonoplast is the single membrane around the large central vacuole usually found within mature plant cells
161
A fluid-filled sac bounded by a single membrane may be termed a vacuole.
Within mature plant cells, there is usually one large central vacuole.
The tonoplast is the single membrane around it.
What does a plant vacuole contain?
A plant vacuole contains:
1. A solution of mineral salts, sugars, amino acids, wastes
2. Sometimes pigments
162
A fluid-filled sac bounded by a single membrane may be termed a vacuole.
Within mature plant cells, there is usually one large central vacuole.
The tonoplast is the single membrane around it.
A plant vacuole contains a solution of mineral salts, sugars, amino acids, wastes and sometimes pigments, such as what?
A plant vacuole contains:
1. A solution of mineral salts, sugars, amino acids, wastes
2. Sometimes pigments, such as anthocyanins
163
Plant vacuoles serve a variety of functions.
The functions of plant vacuoles are:
1. To support what?
The functions of plant vacuoles are to support herbaceous:
1. Plants
2. Parts of woody plants
164
Plant vacuoles serve a variety of functions.
The functions of plant vacuoles are:
1. To support herbaceous plants and herbaceous parts of woody plants by doing what?
The functions of plant vacuoles are to support herbaceous:
1. Plants
2. Parts of woody plants
by making cells turgid
165
Plant vacuoles serve a variety of functions.
The functions of plant vacuoles are:
1. To support herbaceous plants and herbaceous parts of woody plants by making cells turgid.
2. That the what may act as what?
The functions of plant vacuoles are that the:
1. Sugars
2. Amino acids
may act as a temporary food store
166
Plant vacuoles serve a variety of functions.
The functions of plant vacuoles are:
1. To support herbaceous plants and herbaceous parts of woody plants by making cells turgid.
2. That the sugars and amino acids may act as a temporary food store.
3. That the pigments may do what?
The functions of plant vacuoles are that the pigments may colour petals
167
Plant vacuoles serve a variety of functions.
The functions of plant vacuoles are:
1. To support herbaceous plants and herbaceous parts of woody plants by making cells turgid.
2. That the sugars and amino acids may act as a temporary food store.
3. That the pigments may colour petals to do what?
The functions of plant vacuoles are that the pigments may colour petals to attract pollinating insects
168
As each organelle has its own function, it is possible to deduce, with reasonable accuracy, the role of a cell by looking at what?
As each organelle has its own function, it is possible to deduce, with reasonable accuracy, the role of a cell by looking at the:
1. Number
2. Size
of the organelles it contains
169
As each organelle has its own function, it is possible to deduce, with reasonable accuracy, the role of a cell by looking at the number and the size of the organelles it contains.
Example
For example, as mitochondria produce ATP that is used as a temporary energy store, it follows that cells with many mitochondria are likely to:
1. Require a lot of ATP
2. Therefore have a high rate of metabolism
170
As each organelle has its own function, it is possible to deduce, with reasonable accuracy, the role of a cell by looking at the number and the size of the organelles it contains.
For example, as mitochondria produce ATP that is used as a temporary energy store, it follows that cells with many mitochondria are likely to require a lot of ATP and therefore have a high rate of metabolism.
Even within each mitochondrion, the what?
Even within each mitochondrion, the:
1. More dense and numerous the cristae
2. Greater the metabolic rate of the cell possessing these mitochondria
171
When you look at a group of animal cells, such as epithelial cells, under a light microscope, you cannot see the cell-surface membrane, because what?
When you look at a group of animal cells, such as epithelial cells, under a light microscope, you cannot see the cell-surface membrane, because it is too thin to be observed
172
When you look at a group of animal cells, such as epithelial cells, under a light microscope, you cannot see the cell-surface membrane, because it is too thin to be observed.
What you actually see is what?
What you actually see is the boundary between cells
173
Chloroplasts have DNA and may have evolved from free-living prokaryotic cells, but they are what, not what?
Chloroplasts:
1. Have DNA
2. May have evolved from free-living prokaryotic cells
,but they are organelles, not cells
174
Not all plant cells have chloroplasts.
For example, root hair cells.
These are below the soil surface where light rarely penetrates and so no what is possible?
These are:
1. Below the soil surface where light rarely penetrate
2. So no photosynthesis is possible
175
Lysosomes can be thought of as refuse disposal operatives.
| They remove what material (for example bacteria)?
Lysosomes remove:
1. Useless
2. Potentially dangerous
material (for example bacteria)
176
Lysosomes can be thought of as refuse disposal operatives.
| Lysosomes remove useless and potentially dangerous material (for example bacteria) and reuse what?
Lysosomes:
1. Remove useless and potentially dangerous material (for example bacteria)
2. Reuse the useful parts
177
Lysosomes can be thought of as refuse disposal operatives.
Lysosomes remove useless and potentially dangerous material (for example bacteria) and reuse the useful parts, disposing of what?
Lysosomes:
1. Remove useless and potentially dangerous material (for example bacteria)
2. Reuse the useful parts
,disposing of only that which cannot be recycled
178
Plant cells have what, not just a cell wall?
Plant cells have a:
1. Cell-surface membrane
2. Cell wall
,not just a cell wall
