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4.3 Flashcards

circulation

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1
Q

what is a mass transport system

A

substances are transported in the flow of a fluid with a mechanism for moving it around the body

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2
Q

what is an open circulatory system

A

blood circulates in large open spaces

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3
Q

what is a single circulatory system

A

heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the site of gas exchange (gills) where the blood becomes oxygenated then travels around the rest of the body

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4
Q

what is a double circulatory system

A

the pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs to be oxygenated then back to the heart so that the systemic circulation can carry oxygenated blood around the body then return to the heart

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5
Q

what are the advantages of the double circulatory system

A

oxygenated and deoxygenated blood cannot mix so tissues receive much more oxygen
fully oxygenated blood can be delivered quickly to the body tissues at high pressure

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6
Q

define circulation

A

the passage of blood through the blood vessels

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7
Q

what is the role of the plasma

A

transport of:
digested food products from small intestine to the entire body
nutrient molecules
excretory products
chemical messengers
and maintains steady body temperature
acts as a pH buffer

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8
Q

how does the plasma maintain the body’s temperature

A

transfers heat around the system from deep-seated organs and active tissues to the rest of the body

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9
Q

what is haemoglobin

A

red pigments that carries oxygen and give erythrocytes their colour

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10
Q

how are red blood cells well adapted

A

do not contain a nucleus to make space for haemoglobin
biconcave disc shape to increase sa:v for faster diffusion of oxygen
transports

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11
Q

what are leucocytes and their general adaptations

A

cells which defend the body against infection
larger than erythrocytes
can change shape to squeeze through tiny blood vessels
contain a nucleus
have a colourless cytoplasm
some contain granules that can be stained

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12
Q

what are the 3 granulocytes

A

neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils

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13
Q

what are the 2 agranulocytes

A

monocytes
lymphocytes

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14
Q

what are the general adaptations of granulocytes

A

contain granules in the cytoplasm
take up stain so they are obvious under a microscope
have a lobed nucleus

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15
Q

what is the specific role of neutrophils

A

non-specific immune system
engulf and digest pathogens by phagocytosis
multi-lobed nucleus
most common leucocyte

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16
Q

what is the specific role of eosinophils

A

non-specific immune system
stained by eosin stain
respond to parasites, allergic reactions and inflammation

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17
Q

what is the specific role of basophils

A

non-specific immune response
two-lobed nucleus
produce histamines involved in reducing inflammation and allergic reactions

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18
Q

what are the general adaptations of agranulocytes

A

do not have granules
unlobed nucleus

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19
Q

what is the specific role of monocytes

A

specific immune system
largest leucocyte
can move out of the blood into tissues to form macrophages which engulf pathogens by phagocytosis

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20
Q

what is the specific role of lymphocytes

A

specific immune response
very small
large nucleus

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21
Q

what is the role of platelets

A

involved in the clotting mechanism of the blood

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22
Q

what are megakaryocytes

A

large cells found in the bone marrow and produce platelets

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23
Q

what is the structure of haemoglobin

A

large globular protein
4 peptide chains
iron-containing prosthetic groups
quaternary structure
can hold 4 molecules of oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin

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24
Q

how does oxygen leave a red blood cell

A

the red blood cell contains a higher concentration of oxygen in the cytoplasm than surrounding tissue therefor oxygen moves out by diffusion down the concentration gradient

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25
Q

why is it important that haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen

A

so that small changes in the proportion of oxygen in the surroundings can have a big effect on saturation of the blood with oxygen

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26
Q

what is the relationship between CO2 partial pressure and affinity of haemoglobin

A

as CO2 partial pressure increases affinity of haemoglobin reduces

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27
Q

what is the bohr effect

A

changes in the oxygen dissociation curve of haemoglobin that occur due to rise in CO2 levels and a reduction in the affinity of of haemoglobin for oxugen

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28
Q

what is fetal haemoglobin and how is it adapted for oxygen transfer

A

only found in developing fetus
has a higher a higher affinity for oxygen than the mothers haemoglobin so when blood runs through the placenta oxygen is transferred to the fetus and a counter current system is used to maximise gas exchange across the entire length of the placenta

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29
Q

what is myglobin and its role

A

small bright red protein found in muscle tissue of vertebrates giving meat a strong red colour
it has a high affinity for oxygen and is not easily affected by the partial pressure of oxygen therefor acts as a store for oxygen as it is not easily released

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30
Q

what is carbaminohaemoglobin

A

the compound formed when waste carbon dioxide binds with haemoglobin

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31
Q

what are the 3 ways waste carbon dioxide is removed

A

carried in plasma
binds with haemoglobin
transported in cytoplasm of red blood cells as hydrogen carbonate ions

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32
Q

what is the role of carbonic anhydrase

A

controls rate of reaction between carbondioxide and water forming carbonic acid

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33
Q

what is the equation for the hydration of carbondioxide and its dissociation

A

CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3 <=> HCO3- + H+

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34
Q

how is the pH of the blood controlled as carbondioxides dissolve and form carbonic acid

A

the heamoglobin acts as a buffer accepting hydrogen ions to form haemoglobinic acid

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35
Q

what is the need for blood clotting

A

seals up damaged blood vessels to minimise blood loss
prevents pathogens getting in

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36
Q

how do platelets start the formation of a clot when someone has a cut

A

when the platelets come into contact with components of the tissue (e.g. collogen fibers of skin) they break open and release serotonin and thromboplastin

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37
Q

what does serotonin do

A

causes the smooth of the blood vessels to contract therefor narrowing blood vessels and cutting off blood flow to the damaged area

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38
Q

what do thromboplastins do

A

sets into motion the blood clotting cascade

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39
Q

what is the blood clotting cascade

A

thromboplastins catalyse production of thrombin from prothrombin which requires calcium ions
thrombin then converts fibrinogen to fibrin which forms a mesh of fibres that cover the wound
more platelets and blood cells become trapped in the mesh
proteins in the platelets contract tigthning the clot forming a scab for protection while the vessels underneath heals

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40
Q

define arteries

A

vessels that carry blood away from the heart

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41
Q

define veins

A

vessels that carry blood towards the heart

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42
Q

define capillaries

A

small vessels that spread throughout the tissues of the body where most substances carried by the blood is exchanged into cells

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43
Q

what is the pulmonary artery

A

carried deoxygenated blood away from the heart towards the lungs

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44
Q

what is the umbilical artery

A

carries deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta

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45
Q

what is the lumen

A

the central space inside the blood vessel

46
Q

what are arterioles

A

smallest branches of the artery system

47
Q

describe the structure of an artery

A

smaller lumen than vein but elastic walls allow it to stretch
thick wall containing elastic fiber and smooth muscle to withstand large pressure
smooth lining to allow easy blood flow
external tough tissue

48
Q

state 2 reasons why arteries need a thick elastic wall

A

to withstand high pressures when the blood is first pumped from the heart
to return to their original lumen in order to squeeze blood along for a continuous flow

49
Q

where are peripheral arteries found

A

after arteries but before arterioles

50
Q

what are venules

A

smallest branches of veins

51
Q

what connects the capillaries to arteries and veins

A

arterioles
venules

52
Q

describe the adaptations of capillaries

A

small lumen so blood moves slowly so there is longer time for diffusion
walls are one cell thick for fast diffusion and so that they can fit between cells
blood entering is oxygenated to create a concentration gradient

53
Q

what is the pulmonary vein

A

carrys oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart

54
Q

what is the umbilical vein

A

carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the fetus

55
Q

describe the structure of veins

A

large lumen
smooth inner surface for easy blood flow
thin layer of smooth muscle and elastic fibers as veins are very low pressure
tough outer layer made of mostly collogen

56
Q

which veins return blood directly to the heart

A

inferior & superior vena cava

57
Q

what are semilunar valves

A

half-moon shaped one way valves formed from infoldings of the inner wall found at frequent intervals in the venous system to prevent backflow of blood

58
Q

how do semilunar valves work

A

valves close to stop any backflow of blood, only allow blood to travel in one direction (towards the heart)
they are often situated between muscles so that when they contract the veins are squeezed and blood is forced up

59
Q

what blood enters the left side of the heart

A

receives blood from the lungs and pumps it around the body

60
Q

what blood enters the right side of the heart

A

receives blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs

61
Q

what separates the two sides of the heart

A

septum

62
Q

what are the features of cardiac muscle

A

it can carry on contracting without rest or getting fatigued
always has a good blood supply
contains a lot of myoglobin for the store of oxygen

63
Q

where does the inferior vena cava get deoxygenated blood from

A

lower parts of the body

64
Q

where does the superior vena cava get deoxygenated blood from

A

head, neck, arms and chest

65
Q

describe the route of blood around the heart

A

deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the vena cava
as it fills the pressure builds and the tricuspid valve opens the right atrium contracts and blood is moved to the right ventricle
the right ventricle then contracts and forces the blood into the pulmonary arteries which carries deoxygenated blood to the capillaries of the lungs
oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins into the left atrium which then contracts and blood flows through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle
the left ventricle contracts and blood flows out of the aorta all around the body

66
Q

describe the structure of the tricuspid/atrioventricular valve

A

made up of three flaps
separates the right atrium and right ventricle
contains tendonous cords to stop the valves from turning inside out

67
Q

compare and contrast the left and right side of the heart

A

both: contract to move blood
left: thick wall
produces large force
blood is under high pressure

68
Q

what is the foramen ovale

A

a gap in the septum found in fetuses which closes over at birth

69
Q

what is a systole

A

a contraction of the heart

70
Q

what is the difference between an articular systole and ventricular systole

A

articular - atria contractions
ventricular - ventricle contractions

71
Q

what is a diastole

A

when the heart relaxes and fills with blood

72
Q

what is a cardiac cycle

A

cycle of contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) in the heart

73
Q

what happens to the valves in a diastole

A

semilunar valves close
atrioventricular valves open

74
Q

what happens to the valves in a systole

A

semilunar valves open
atrioventricular valves close

75
Q

what is an average heartbeat per minute

A

70 beats per minute

76
Q

how is the heart beat myogenic

A

it contracts without external stimulus

77
Q

what is the intrinsic rhythmicity

A

the intrinsic rhythm of contraction and relaxation of the cardiac muscle

78
Q

what is the sinoatrial node

A

a group of cells in the right atrium, its the area of the heart with the fastest intrinsic rhythm and acts as the hearts own natural pacemaker

79
Q

what is the annulus fibrosus

A

non-conducting tissue that provides support for the heart that spreads between the atria and the ventricles preventing the wave of excitation spreading to the ventricles

80
Q

what is the atrioventricular node

A

a group of cells stimulated by the wave of excitation from the SAN and atria, imposing a delay before transmitting the impulse to the bundle of His

81
Q

what is the bundle of His

A

a group of conducting fibers in the septum of the heart, it ensures the atria have stopped contracting before the ventricles start

82
Q

what is the purkyne tissue

A

conducting fibers that penetrate down through the septum spreading between and around the ventricles for the depolarization to travel through the tissue so that the ventricle contracts starting from the apex

83
Q

explain the contractions of the heart

A

depolarisation originates at the SAN (sinoatrial node) causing atrial systole but it does not spread to the ventricle because of the annulus fiber
the AVN (atrioventricular node) is stimulated causing a delay in atrial diastole and passes depolarisation into the bundle of His
which branches into purkyne fibers that causes ventricular systole

84
Q

what is an ECG

A

electrocardiogram

85
Q

what is a cardiovascular disease

A

diseases of the heart and circulatory system

86
Q

what is atherosclerosis

A

a condition in which yellow fatty deposits build up on the lining of the arteries causing them to narrow

87
Q

how is atherosclerosis caused

A

damage to the endothelial cells lining the artery which can lead to a build up of lipids then blood platelets form a cap over the fatty plaque which narrows the lumen artery and further damage can cause a clot which may block the whole artery and increase blood pressure and lead to a stroke or heart attack

88
Q

why is atherosclerosis more common in arteries than veins

A

because the blood is under higher pressure in the arteries so the endothelium lining is under more strain

89
Q

what is an atheroma

A

the plaque formed on the arterial lining

90
Q

what is an aneurysm

A

a weakened bulging area of artery wall that results from a build up behind a blockage caused by plaques

91
Q

what can an aneurysm cause

A

internal bleeding as the artery wall is weakened and splits open

92
Q

how can atherosclerosis affect the kidneys

A

high blood pressure damages tiny blood vessels needed in the kidney for filtering out urea and forces proteins out

93
Q

how can atherosclerosis affect the retina

A

the tiny blood vessels supplying blood to the retina can become blocked or leak leading to the retinal cells becoming starved of oxygen and die causing blindness

94
Q

what can cause a stroke

A

interruption to the normal blood supply to the brain, blockages or leakages

95
Q

what is an angina

A

a condition in which plaques build up and reduce blood flow to the cardiac muscle resulting in pain during exercise

96
Q

what is a myocardial infraction

A

heart attack

97
Q

what in anaerobic respiration

A

cellular respiration without the presence of oxygen

98
Q

what can be done to reduce atherosclerosis

A

regular exercise
losing weight
not smoking
drugs to reduce heart rate and dilate blood vessels
insert a stent
heart bypass

99
Q

what is a stent

A

a metal or plastic mesh tube that is inserted into an artery affected by atherosclerosis to hold it open and allow blood to pass through freely

100
Q

what can cause a myocardial infraction

A

branches of coronary arteries become completely blocked by a blood clot causing part of the heart muscle to be starved of oxygen

101
Q

what is thrombosis

A

a clot that forms in a blood vessel

102
Q

what are the symptoms of a angina and myocardial infraction

A

pain in chest and left arm
pain in jaw and breathlessness

103
Q

what are the symptoms of a stroke

A

dizziness, confusion, slurred speech, blurred vision, numbness, paralysis

104
Q

what is a multifactorial disease

A

a disease that results from the interplay of many different factors rather than having one simple cause

105
Q

what are the three main risk factors associated with getting atherosclerosis

A

genes - arteries may damage easily, tendency to develop hypertension, cholesterol metabolism faulty
age - arteries lose elasticity and narrow
sex - men are statistically more likely to suffer from atherosclerosis as oestrogen reduces the build up of plaque
exercise - helps lower blood pressure and blood cholesterol levels
smoking - damages artery lining
weight - increases blood pressure and type 2 diabetes
stress - raises blood pressure and releases cytokines that trigger an inflammatory response increasing plaque formation
diet - lots of saturated fats causes high blood cholesterol levels

106
Q

what can be done to reduce the risk of atherosclerosis

A

eating a balanced diet of fats and lots of fruit and vegetables, not smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, regular exercise and reducing constant stress

107
Q

what is tissue fluid and why is it needed

A

fluid that surrounds all the cells in the body that is needed for the transportation of substances in and out of a cell

108
Q

what is not able to move out of the blood in the permeable capillaries

A

erythrocytes
large plasma proteins

109
Q

how does water potential facilitate the movement of substances out of the cell and into the blood

A

plasma proteins and albumin exert an osmotic effect with give the blood a low water potential so water moves into the blood by the oncotic pressure

110
Q

how does the hydrostatic pressure facilitate the movement of substances out of the blood and into the cell

A

residual pressure from the heartbeat forces fluid out through the capillaries

111
Q

why does the hydrostatic pressure of the blood fall through the capillaries

A

pressure from the pulse is lost
volume of blood in the capillaries is lowered

112
Q

summarise the movement of substances into and out of capillaries

A

hydrostatic pressure > oncotic pressure so water moves into capillary & fluid leaves the capillary

Biology (33 decks)

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