3.5-3.9 Flashcards
our agreed upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words, and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.
language
in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
phoneme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
morpheme
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.
grammar
humans’ innate predisposition to understand the principles and rules that govern grammar in all languages
universal grammar
the stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language
babbling stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
one-word stage
the stage in speech development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences
two-word stage
the early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - “go car” - using mostly nouns and verbs
telegraphic speech
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding
aphasia
a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language and expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech
Broca’s area
a brain area, usually in the left temporal Lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression
Wernicke’s area
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
linguistic determinism
the idea that language influences the way we think
linguistic relativism
a theory of the social environment’s influence on human development, using five nested systems ranging from direct to indirect influences
ecological systems theory
five systems of ecological systems theory
Microsystem, Mesosystem, exosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
stranger anxiety
an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress of separation
attachment
the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
imprinting
a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed
strange situation
demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return
secure attachment
demonstrated by infants who display a clinging, anxious attachments; an avoidant attachment that resists closeness; or a disorganized attachment with no consistent behavior when separated from or reunited with caregivers
insecure attachment
a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
temperament
a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
basic trust
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”
self-concept
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
identity
the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “who am I?” that comes from our group memberships
social identity
In Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood
intimacy
a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
emerging adulthood
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
social clock
Coercive parenting style with strict rules, they expect obedience and control their child’s whole lives.
Authoritarian
Unrestraining parenting style that make few demands, few limits, and use limit punishment, but seek a close, friend-like relationship with their children.
Permissive Indulgent
Uninvolved parenting style, where parents do not seek a close relationship with their children and are careless and inattentive.
Permissive neglectful
Confrontive parenting style, the parent sets rules and boundaries but encourages open discussion and allows exceptions
Authoritative
Stage of psychosocial development from Infancy to 1 year where infants develop a sense of basic trust if needs are dependably met
Trust and mistrust
Stage of psychosocial development from 1-3 years where toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities.
Autonomy and shame and doubt
Stage of psychosocial development from 3-6 years where preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent
Initiative and guilt
Stage of psychosocial development in elementary school where children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior.
Competence and inferiority
Stage of psychosocial development during adolescence when teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
Identity and role confusion
Stage of psychosocial development during young adulthood when young adults learn to form close relationships and gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
Intimacy and isolation
Stage of psychosocial development during middle adulthood when middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they feel a lack of purpose.
Generativity and stagnation
Stage of psychosocial development during late adulthood when older adults reflect on their lives and feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
Integrity and despair
the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience
learning
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
habituation
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be 2 stimuli or a response and its consequences
associative learning
any event or situation that evokes a response
stimulus
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
respondent behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence
operant behavior
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
cognitive learning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result the first stimulus comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of the second stimulus
classical conditioning
the view that psychology should be an objective sciences that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
behaviorism
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that solicits o response before conditioning
neutral stimulus
in classical conditioning, and unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.
unconditioned response
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers an unconditioned response
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, the initial stage - when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response
acquisition
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
higher-order conditioning
in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus
extinction
the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response
spontaneous recovery
in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
generalization
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have it been associated with a conditioned stimulus.
discrimination
a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value
preparedness
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher
operant conditioning
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
law of effect
in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking
operant chamber
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
reinforcement
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
shaping
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement
discriminative stimulus
increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. When a stimulus is removed it strengthens the response
negative reinforcement
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
primary reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
conditioned reinforcer
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
reinforcement schedule
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
continuous reinforcement schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time, results in slower acquisitions of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
partial reinforcement schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
variable-interval schedule
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
punishment
the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns
instinctive drift
learning by observing others
observational learning
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
modeling
neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. May enable imitation and empathy
mirror neurons
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
prosocial behavior
negative, destructive, harmful behavior
antisocial behavior
