3.5-3.9

Question 1

our agreed upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words, and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

Answer 1

language

Question 2

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Answer 2

phoneme

Question 3

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

Answer 3

morpheme

Question 4

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

Answer 4

grammar

Question 5

humans’ innate predisposition to understand the principles and rules that govern grammar in all languages

Answer 5

universal grammar

Question 6

the stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language

Answer 6

babbling stage

Question 7

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

Answer 7

one-word stage

Question 8

the stage in speech development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences

Answer 8

two-word stage

Question 9

the early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - “go car” - using mostly nouns and verbs

Answer 9

telegraphic speech

Question 10

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding

Answer 10

aphasia

Question 11

a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language and expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech

Answer 11

Broca’s area

Question 12

a brain area, usually in the left temporal Lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression

Answer 12

Wernicke’s area

Question 13

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think

Answer 13

linguistic determinism

Question 14

the idea that language influences the way we think

Answer 14

linguistic relativism

Question 15

a theory of the social environment’s influence on human development, using five nested systems ranging from direct to indirect influences

Answer 15

ecological systems theory

Question 16

five systems of ecological systems theory

Answer 16

Microsystem, Mesosystem, exosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem

Question 17

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Answer 17

stranger anxiety

Question 18

an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress of separation

Answer 18

attachment

Question 19

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

Answer 19

imprinting

Question 20

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed

Answer 20

strange situation

Question 21

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return

Answer 21

secure attachment

Question 22

demonstrated by infants who display a clinging, anxious attachments; an avoidant attachment that resists closeness; or a disorganized attachment with no consistent behavior when separated from or reunited with caregivers

Answer 22

insecure attachment

Question 23

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Answer 23

temperament

Question 24

a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Answer 24

basic trust

Question 25

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Answer 25

self-concept

Question 26

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Answer 26

identity

Question 27

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

Answer 27

social identity

Question 28

In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood

Answer 28

intimacy

Question 29

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Answer 29

emerging adulthood

Question 30

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Answer 30

social clock

Question 31

Coercive parenting style with strict rules, they expect obedience and control their child's whole lives.

Answer 31

Authoritarian

Question 32

Unrestraining parenting style that make few demands, few limits, and use limit punishment, but seek a close, friend-like relationship with their children.

Answer 32

Permissive Indulgent

Question 33

Uninvolved parenting style, where parents do not seek a close relationship with their children and are careless and inattentive.

Answer 33

Permissive neglectful

Question 34

Confrontive parenting style, the parent sets rules and boundaries but encourages open discussion and allows exceptions

Answer 34

Authoritative

Question 35

Stage of psychosocial development from Infancy to 1 year where infants develop a sense of basic trust if needs are dependably met

Answer 35

Trust and mistrust

Question 36

Stage of psychosocial development from 1-3 years where toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities.

Answer 36

Autonomy and shame and doubt

Question 37

Stage of psychosocial development from 3-6 years where preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent

Answer 37

Initiative and guilt

Question 38

Stage of psychosocial development in elementary school where children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior.

Answer 38

Competence and inferiority

Question 39

Stage of psychosocial development during adolescence when teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

Answer 39

Identity and role confusion

Question 40

Stage of psychosocial development during young adulthood when young adults learn to form close relationships and gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

Answer 40

Intimacy and isolation

Question 41

Stage of psychosocial development during middle adulthood when middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they feel a lack of purpose.

Answer 41

Generativity and stagnation

Question 42

Stage of psychosocial development during late adulthood when older adults reflect on their lives and feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

Answer 42

Integrity and despair

Question 43

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience

Answer 43

learning

Question 44

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

Answer 44

habituation

Question 45

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be 2 stimuli or a response and its consequences

Answer 45

associative learning

Question 46

any event or situation that evokes a response

Answer 46

stimulus

Question 47

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Answer 47

respondent behavior

Question 48

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence

Answer 48

operant behavior

Question 49

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Answer 49

cognitive learning

Question 50

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result the first stimulus comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of the second stimulus

Answer 50

classical conditioning

Question 51

the view that psychology should be an objective sciences that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Answer 51

behaviorism

Question 52

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that solicits o response before conditioning

Answer 52

neutral stimulus

Question 53

in classical conditioning, and unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Answer 53

unconditioned response

Question 54

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers an unconditioned response

Answer 54

unconditioned stimulus

Question 55

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

Answer 55

conditioned response

Question 56

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Answer 56

conditioned stimulus

Question 57

in classical conditioning, the initial stage - when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

Answer 57

acquisition

Question 58

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Answer 58

higher-order conditioning

Question 59

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

Answer 59

extinction

Question 60

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response

Answer 60

spontaneous recovery

Question 61

in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Answer 61

generalization

Question 62

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have it been associated with a conditioned stimulus.

Answer 62

discrimination

Question 63

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

Answer 63

preparedness

Question 64

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

Answer 64

operant conditioning

Question 65

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Answer 65

law of effect

Question 66

in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Answer 66

operant chamber

Question 67

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Answer 67

reinforcement

Question 68

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Answer 68

shaping

Question 69

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement

Answer 69

discriminative stimulus

Question 70

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus

Answer 70

positive reinforcement

Question 71

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. When a stimulus is removed it strengthens the response

Answer 71

negative reinforcement

Question 72

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Answer 72

primary reinforcer

Question 73

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

Answer 73

conditioned reinforcer

Question 74

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Answer 74

reinforcement schedule

Question 75

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Answer 75

continuous reinforcement schedule

Question 76

reinforcing a response only part of the time, results in slower acquisitions of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Answer 76

partial reinforcement schedule

Question 77

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Answer 77

fixed-ratio schedule

Question 78

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Answer 78

variable-ratio schedule

Question 79

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Answer 79

fixed-interval schedule

Question 80

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Answer 80

variable-interval schedule

Question 81

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Answer 81

punishment

Question 82

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Answer 82

instinctive drift

Question 83

learning by observing others

Answer 83

observational learning

Question 84

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Answer 84

modeling

Question 85

neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. May enable imitation and empathy

Answer 85

mirror neurons

Question 86

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

Answer 86

prosocial behavior

Question 87

negative, destructive, harmful behavior

Answer 87

antisocial behavior