16.5 Traits, Types And Styles Flashcards
What are traits?
Inherent and represent learned potential + predispositions which direct + motivate behaviour and which give structure to personality or those attributes that make up personality
How can traits be expressed as?
Single traits
Combined traits as factors, types or styles
Scientific and more objective measurement and trait descriptions of personality are based on some theoretical model or other such as ….
The 3- ; 5- ; and 16- Factor Models
Who described entrepeneurial success through 13 general characteristics?
Timmons
Name some of Timmon’s characteristics for entrepeneurial success.
Drive and energy Self-confidence Long-term involvement Valuing money as a measure of success Persistence in problem solving Set goals + commit to them Moderate risk taking Ability to learn from failures Concern for feedback on performance Initiative + taking responsibility Actively using available resources Competing against own standards Tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty
What is 1 of the most sophisticated and influential trait approaches
in theory, research and other applications?
Hans Eysenck’s Three Factor Model of personality
What other model does Eysenck’s Three Factor model resemble?
The 5 Factor model
Eysenck preferred to use fewer but more inclusive trait factors and to emphasise the ….
Necessity of having a theoretical explanation for each trait and not just empirical findings alone.
According to Eysenck many traits are biologically determined and …..
influenced by the environment
People’s specific responses in situations can be grouped into …
Habitual responses
which in turn can be grouped into
Supertraits - from which personality will emerge
Personality is seen to consist of 3 major factors, supertraits or types. What are they?
Also known as PEN model
EXTROVERSION - introversion (E)
NEUROTICISM - stability (N)
PSYCHOTICISM - tough-mindedness (P) (progressiveness and interpersonal hostility)
How did Eysenck explain up to 2/3 of differences in traits between people (which has new been verified by research)?
Genetic factors
causing diff between people’s psychological responsiveness which will influence
personality-trait development and expression
What did Eysenck’s model influence?
The construction of various personality questionnaires such as the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) to assess the Three Factor Model
Digman assered that Eysenck’s model really has 4 factors. Which was the 4th one?
Intelligence
Name some applications for Eysenck’s Three Factor model.
Assessment and description of behaviours in various applications such as: Smoking Sex + criminality Cross-culturally And to lesser degree Occupational assessments
Name the subfactors 7 of
Extroversion vs Introversion. (3 factor model)
1) Activity
2) Sociability
3) Risk-taking
4) Impulsiveness
5) Expressiveness
6) Lack of reflection
7) Lack of responsibility
Name the 7 subfactors of Neuroticism vs Emotional Stability. (3Factor Model)
Low self-esteem Unhappiness Anxiety Obsessiveness Lack of autonomy Hypochondria Guilt
Name the 7 subfactors under Psychoticism vs Tough-mindedness. (3 factor model)
Agressiveness Assertiveness Achievement orientation Manipulation Sensation-seeking Dogmatism Masculinity
Eysenck’s research on introversion and extroversion confirmed the diff between the 2 types with regard to ….
Sociability and impulsiveness
Extroverts - more sociable but risk taking and impulsive
Introverts - reserved, quiet, introspective and less impulsive
People with high neuroticism tend to ….
- worry a lot
- are anxious + emotionally labile
- many physical complaints
The factor psychoticism is disputed as a general trait in personality description and claimed to …
Relate more to a description of maladjustment
in the form of psychopathy
Who proposed the 16 Factor Model in personality assessment?
Cattell
Cattell’s 16 Factor model is used in:
Clinical
Educational
and occupational applications
How did Cattell’s 16 factor model evolve?
As a result of extensive factorial research over many years.
How does the 16 Factor Model of Cattell work?
When assessing - personality is divided into 16 “1st order factors” OR “source traits” or calculated and reduces to 6 (or 9) “second-order traits”
Name the 16 primary factors of Cattells 16 Factor questionnaire.
1) warmth 😥
2) mental alertness💤
3) emotionality😭
4) dominance 😡
5) liveliness 🎶
6) conformity 😔
7) boldness 👴🏻
8) sensitivity 😷
9) vigilance 👀
10) abstractedness 🎭y
11) privateness ⛔️
12) apprehension ☺️
13) change orientation 🙉🙈🙊
14) self-discipline👸🏻
15) perfectionism📐📏
16) tension 😁⛱
Which approach has developed into arguably the best supported as an integrative trait description of personality?
The Five Factor Model
What is the 5 Factor model also called?
FFM
or
Big Five Factor Model
Why does the 5 Factor Model enjoy wide acceptance?
The traits have been proved to have construct + predictive validity
and
good theoretical descriptions support
The FFM (5 Factor Model) had its modest conception when and by whom?
Thurstone 1930
Was rediscovered in the 1980’s
What criticism was there for the 5 Factor Model?
It is too mechanical and does not explain the underlying dynamics of personality
Unlike Freud, Allport and Cattell did not believe that personality ….
Is absolutely determined by events during childhood but that people are free to develop their personalities according to their own goals and motivations.
Name the 5 factors in the Five Factor Model.
OCEAN
Openness to experience (intellect) Conscientiousness (dependability) Extroversion Agreeableness (friendliness) Neuroticism (emotional instability)
What did research indicate about most of the 5 factors and subfacets in the FFM?
Depending on the type of job and the work-performance criteria used,
most of the factors are work related
In the FFM which factor is a constant predictor of work performance across many jobs?
Conscientiousness
In the FFM which factor is closely related to job factors such as social interaction and training proficiency?
Extroversion
In the FFM which factor is an intervening variable in the relationship of personality and work performance?
Autonomy
Define proprium.
Ego or self
FFM does well in describing personality but not as well in …
explaining behaviour -
especially underlying causes,
internal personality dynamics and
underlying motivation
Hough criticised the FFM for being too broad + not accommodating some existing personality scales. She proposed 4 more factors.
- achievement
- affiliation
- locus of control
- masculinity / femiminity
Personality is embedded in other domains as well. Name 2.
1) cognitive or intellectual domain
2) non-cognitive domains eg. motives, values, attitudes ect
Define enduring.
Durable
Long lasting
What is the purpose of the Interpersonal Circumplex Model (interpersonal trait model)?
Used to classify interpersonal behaviours
Wiggens distinguished 8 interpersonal categories.
Arrogant - calculating Cold - quarrelsome Aloof - introverted Unassured - submissive Unassuming - ingenious Warm - agreeable Gregarious - extroverted
Who produced the Interpersonal Impact Message Inventory to access the impact of interpersonal in eg. Therapy?
Kiesler
Who indicated the way in which people with personality disorders can be described according to their interpersonal schemas?
Baldwin
Is spirituality also named as a trait and in which trait classifications would it be found?
Yes, personality traits
What did Hill + Safran 1994 develop to access the way in which people construct their relationship / interactions with other people?
the Interpersonal Schema Questionnaire
Name an example of the universally usable measure of work-related personality traits by McLellan and Paajanen 1995.
Customer Service Inventory CSI
Name the 16 dimentions in the CSI (Customer Service Inventory) questionnaire.
Sociable Communicative Courteous Positive body language Perceptive Responsive Tactful Cooperative Flexible Open Even-tempered Optimistic Accepting of authority Externally rewarded Competent Reliable
Define trait models.
Theoretical models explaining diff in people by using the trait concept
Define interpersonal traits.
Traits describing interactive behaviour
Define types / styles.
Combinations of traits that indicate a distinct pattern of behaviour.
Name another measure of work-criterion clusters or taxonomies.
18 Factor model of managerial performance
Name the 4 main factors in the 18 Factor Model by Borman and Brush.
1) Interpersonal Dealings and Communication
2) Leadership and Supervision
3) Technical activities and Mechanics of Management
4) Useful Personal Behaviour and Skills
Name the 18 specific criteria applicable to management performance (18 Factor Model of Man Performance)
- Planning + Organising
- Guiding, directing and motivating subordinates
- communicating effectively + keeping others informed
- representing the organisation
- technical proficiency
- admin + paperwork
- good working relationships
- coordinating subordinates + resources
- decision making + problem solving
- staffing
- persistence in reaching goals
- crisis + stress management
- org commitment
- monitoring + controlling resources
- delegating
- selling + influencing
- collecting + interpreting data
Organisations are classified according to personality trait-like concepts. Name some of the traits identified in organisations that managed diversity successfully.
- strong positive values
- understanding own culture + how this influences employees
- practising + accepting cultural diff
- encouraging open, trusting climate
- good structural integration + flexibility
- practising mutual feedback
- absence of prejudice, discrimination
- ensuring low levels of conflict
- concern for interpersonal relationships
- creative problem solving
- having low range goals
Define Psychofortological trait concepts.
Wellness or health enhancing resources
Eg. Personal hardiness, optimism, lovus of control
How is the convept of traits, types and styles similar?
In that they denote a person’s disposition
to act in a specific way if he / she
has a combination of certain traits
Eg introvert
Which are used more frequently - type and style concepts or trait concepts?
Trait concepts
What is a typical problem with the use of type descriptions?
There is a tendency for people to be labelled as a certain type.
Cattell refers to common traits as…
Source traits
Which 2 questionnaires are based on Jung’s theory of psychological type?
MBTI - Meyer-Briggs type indicator
Jungs Personality Questionnaire
The Greek physician Galen identified 4 personality types in accordance with Hippocrates. With what was each personality type associated?
Internal body fluids / natural elements with accompanying temperature types.
Sheldon described 3 personality types made up of interactions between body types (somatotypes) and temperament. Name them.
Endomorphs - heavier round body types
more sociable easy-going
Mesomorphs - more muscular body types
energetic + assertive in nature
Ectomorphs - thinner body types
sensitive, shy, intellectual
In interpreting the Five Factor Model, positive psychologists, according to Digman, suggested 3 positive factors used to describe a “close-to-optimally” functioning person.
- socialisation process
- growth
- spiritually / religiousness
What are personality types A, C and D indicative of?
Lifestyle patterns Stress management Relationships Emotional expression and Work commitment
Which personality type is predisposed to cardiovascular disease?
Types A and D
Which personality type is predisposedto cancer?
Type C
Blake + Mouton describe conflict-management styles along 2 dimentions: concern for people VS concern for task. Nmae the 5 conflict management styles.
WITHDRAWAL - ⬇️ concern 4 people
⬇️ concern 4 task
SMOOTHING - 🔼 concern people
🔽 task
FORCING - ⬇️ concern 4 people
⬆️ task
COMPROMISE - task ⚖ people
PROBLEM SOLVING - solutions to satisfy people
and task
Name Rahim’s five conflict-management styles in complex organisations.
Intergrating Obliging Dominating Avoiding Compromising
Name characteristics of Type A personalities.
Impatience
High standards of achievement
Tight time schedule
Competitiveness
Name typical Type B characteristics.
Calm orientation with less emphasis on achievement and time constraints
Kolb developed a questionnaire about learning styles which identify the type of cognitive attitudes + learning styles people utilise to disseminate info and solve problems. Name the 4 types identified.
Accommodator
Diverger
Assimilator
Converger
Learning styles affect the person’s development in the acquisition of certain skills as well as wether the person is concrete / abstract in thinking (theoretical) + wether the person utilises active (direct) particiption / reflective (indirect) observation. Name the 4 learning styles.
Activist
Theorist
Reflector
Pragmatist
Prosocial organisational behaviours or organisational citizenship behaviour are …
the extra supportive, positive or work-engagement behaviours
that are not always in a jobs description,
but are very necessary in successful job performance
eg. Volunteering, extra enthusiasm, helping others
Name Latack’s 3 types of job-related coping styles.
Control
Escape
Symptom mamagement
The Ways of Coping Checklist (WCCL) of Lazarus and Folkman identifies 2 styles of coping. Name them.
Problem focused
Emotion focused
Name the 6 value orientations that denote personality type as constructed in the Study of Values Scale based on Sprangler’s work.
1) theoretical
2) economic
3) social
4) political
5) aesthetic
6) religious
Define common traits.
Are the
measureable, structural and motivational units of personality
which are general / common to most people
within a given culture
which enable assessors
to make nomothetic comparisons
of people across culture and situations.
Strongly indicate the uniqueness of each person
People might have common traits like agressiveness, nut they diff….
in quantity and quality
Who made the following statement? “In some respects all people are alike, in some respects some people are similar and in some respects every individual is unique”
Allport
What are surface traits?
Much the same as common traits
Who proposed common traits and who proposed surface traits?
Common traits - Allport
Surface traits - Cattell
What are source traits?
More fundamental than
common / surface traits.
They determine
personality structure and the expression of other trait.
Source trait (such as extroversion is expressed in people’s daily behaviour)
and is measured
by personality questionnaire scores
on surface traits.
Eg. High scores on
carefreeness, friendliness, positiveness
A cording to Cattell, what are unique traits, which Allport refers to as personal disposition?
Unique traits are peculiar to individuals only.
Similar to common traits but actually refer to the UNDERLYING, REAL and UNIQUE NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL structure in each trait.
Eg. a person who is easily excitable
or
who reacts with anxiety in many situations
According to Allport, what is a secondary personal disposition?
Eg. Giving a gift might be seen as generous or kind
but there might be an expectation for something in return.
This is the secondary personal disposition which might manifest in particular situations.
Allport refers to cardinal traits. Explain.
Cardinal traits are VERY STRONG and PERSISTENT characteristics in some people
such as being authoritarian, competitive, ambitious or obsessive and perfectionistic.
Very dominant traits. Not everyone has cardinal traits.
Eg. Wise Solomon, as seductive as Don Juan
According to Allport, which traits are less overt, not generalised and do not manifest frequently, like preference for colour or food?
Secondary traits
When do Allport believe is positive psychological growth into a mature adult possible?
Only if positive conditions
and
a healthy biological make-up
are present during the gradual development of the person’s potential.
According to Allport, what will happen if positive psychological growth is frustrated?
The personal traits or dispositions
that will characterise consistent behaviour
and
are also necessary for a person
to achieve life goals and function as an autonomous adult -
will not develop.
What is Allport’s CONCEPT OF PROPRIUM about?
To describe
the unifying core or most personal and important aspects of personality
whereas other theorists tend to use the words EGO / SELF
How many stages of proprium did Allport develop?
7
In trait approaches, trait concepts are also used to explain ….
Behaviour motivation
Allport agreed with Freud that motivation in children is based on …..
immediate and reactive mechanisms,
mostly from basic biological instinct and needs
Allport agreed with Jung + Adler on a
teleological principle
that motivation is based on ….
Propriate strivings - behaviour initialted by future life goals and intentions.
Explain “functional autonomy”.
Adults are consciously aware of
what they do,
they plan and
are not dependent on previous motives of childhood or environmental forces.
What is proprium?
Self-concept
Explain “propriate functional autonomy”.
People select the motives
that they like + suit their self-concept
Why can young children or people with anxiety seldom function autonomously?
Their behaviour is based on
immediate gratification + tension reduction (deficiency needs)
What does Allport mean with “growth needs” or “propriate needs”?
A mature adult might sometimes be motivated by "deficiency needs" (such as uncertainty or hunger) but has the ABILITY and PROPRIATE COPING METHODS to put aside such motivations to achieve long-term goals
Allport claims behaviours such as
habits, addictions and automatic responses
one had a ….
motive as perseverative functional autonomy
Why can many biological behaviours not be explained by the functional autonomy concept?
Because they clearly always have a biological origin.
For what did Cattell use his concept of “dynamic traits”?
To explain behaviour motivation + interests towards certain goals,
which explain why people do what they do.
According to Cattell “dynamic trait” are inborn or acquired through environmental learning. Name the 3 types of dynamic traits.
Attitudes
Sentiments
Ergs (much like drives or instincts)
According to Cattell,
which traits including intelligence,
determine how much people will work in order to reach goals?
Temperament and ability traits
According to Cattell, what is fluid general intelligence?
General intelligence is largely inherited.
What is Crystallised General Ability?
Abilities acquired in learning processes
Is not genetically influenced.
Murray described human motivation through underlying needs (primary biological or secondary psychological). Needs are aroused by…..
cognitive and emotional motives (wanting something)
and
influences from external environment
There is agreement amongst trait approaches that traits provide …… and ……. to personality in people.
Stability and consistency
What is “interactionism” as used to explain consistency in personality?
Personality,
the situation and
resultant behaviours
contribute to personality consistency
