Study Guide 6 - Human Development Flashcards
Nature v. Nurture
- development is affected by our genetics and the environment
- work together to make all people alike ex) all achieve physical development at about the same rate
- make each person unique ex) differences among athletics, personality etc.
- how much each one contributes varies with the trait
Maturation
- Gesell studied motor skills in children of all ages
- determined a fixed sequence not likely to be affected by the environment
- maturation refers to natural growth in a fixed sequence, pretty independent of the environment (ex: learning to walk)
Zygote
- new cell formed after fertilization
- fathers sperm and mothers ovum
Germinal Stage
-zygote divides into many cells
Embryo
-developing baby from the 14th day after fertilization until 2nd month
Embryonic Stage
- embryo develops organs: heart, Nervous System, stomach, ovaries/testes
- at the end of this stage the embryo has eyes, ears, a nose, jaw, mouth, lips etc.
- critical period: certain kinds of growth must occur if development will be normal, if organs don’t form or form incorrectly it is permanent
Fetus
-developing baby from 3rd month until birth
Fetal stage
- organs grow and mature
- end of third month: kick, turn head
- 6th month: taste buds, breathe if born prematurely
- by 8th and 9th months can respond to light and touch, and learn
Placenta
- spongy organ that is formed from the outside layer of the zygote
- sends nutrients from mom to baby, and carries away wastes
- attempts to screen out harmful substances, but not always successful
Teratogen
- harmful external substances that invade the womb and result in birth defects
- especially damaging during embryonic stage
Rubella
- German measles
- if mom has it during 3/4th week baby has 50% chance of being blind, deaf, or mentally retarded
- rubella later in pregnancy, likelihood of one of these defects is much lower
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
-pattern of defects including mental retardation and face malformations in babies whose mothers consume alcohol during pregnancy
Newborn Vision
- vision is very blurry
- small eyes
- eye movements are slow and jerky
- pathways connecting eyes to brain are inefficient
- can see large objects close up
- like to stare at human faces and eyes
- some degree of size constancy
Newborn Depth Perception
-do not experience depth perception until about 7 months old
Newborn Hearing
- hear poorly
- can hear soft voices, turn their heads toward sound
- especially like speech sounds
- like to hear “baby talk”
Newborn Scent
- sense of smell not fully developed
- like smell of flowers
- prefer odors of mom: helps identify caregiver, important for survival
Newborn Reflexes
- babies demonstrate involuntary, unlearned motor behaviors
- reflexes evolved because they were important for survival
- most reflexes disappear after the first 4 months, and motor skills become voluntary
Rooting Reflex
-infant to turn its head toward anything that touches its cheek
Suckling Reflex
-newborn sucks on anything that touches its lips
Newborn Maturation and Experience
- as maturation increases infants’ strength they experiment with motor patterns
- motor development from a combo of maturation and experience
- ex) took about a week of trial and error for babies to learn how to crawl
Continuity v. Discontinuity
- is development gradual or in stages?
- continuity: changes children undergo occur in small steps, not as structured
- discontinuity: we progress in stages
Universality
- globally do all children develop the same way?
- evidence that children progress through a series of stages of cognitive development
- but there are cultural differences in the ages children reach stages or if they reach them at all
Stability
- do traits persist or change as we grow?
- Freud argued that personalities are fixed by the time we are 6
- Eric Erickson said that personalities are shaped throughout one’s life
Longitudinal Study
-study the same ppl over time
Cross Sectional Study
-comparison of ppl from different age groups at the same time
Piaget’s Stage Theory
- cognitive development occurs is a series of distinct stages
- all children go through the same stages, in the same order, without skipping
Sensorimotor Stage
- birth-2
- infants explore the world through their senses and motor activities
- ends when they can think past the present ex) objects exist when they aren’t present (OBJECT PERMANENCE)
- only think about the present
- current studies show that infants do think, combine sensory experiences, remember, solve simple problems, and have a sense of object permanence
Pre-Operational Stage
- 2 to 4
- use symbols to represent things that aren’t present
- play pretend
- 4 to 7
- make guesses about how the world works
- believe inanimate objects are alive (animism)
- highly egocentric, cannot see things from others perspectives
- do not realize that things are the same even if appearance changes CONSERVATION ex) moving liquid in-between glasses (IRREVERSIBILITY-cannot reverse sequence of events)
- centration: focus on only 1 aspect of a situation
Concrete Operational
- 7-11
- about real objects only
- understand and apply simple logical principles
- properties of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance (OBJECT PERMANENCE)
- appreciate other ppl’s perspective
- count, measure, add etc.
Formal Operational
- 11 and older
- think logically about abstractions, can speculate, consider “what ifs”
- can imagine other worlds
- reason about verbal and logical statements
- reflect, do science
Schema
- the generalizations that form as ppl experience the world
- organize past experiences and provide a framework for future ones
- ex) sucking schema-mental images of what can be sucked, kinds of sucking
ex) schema about being in love
Assimilation
- children take in new information and put them into existing schemas
- ex) toddler who sees a butterfly puts it into her bird schema
Accommodation
- change schemes when faced with new information that doesn’t fit into old schemas
- ex) child expands bird schema into a flying animals schema
Palmar Grasp Reflex
-if you place your finger in the palm of a baby’s hand he will grab it!
Moro Reflex
- the startle reflex
- caused by changes in movement of temperature
- throws his arms and legs to the side and then pulls them close to his chest
Babinski Reflex
-if u stroke and infants foot, his toes will extend upward
Gender Identity
-ones sense of being male or female
Gender Role
- set of expected behaviors for males and females
- role: set of behaviors and obligations we assign to certain ppl
Gender-Typing
-acquisition of traditional masculine of feminine roles
X Chromosome
- females are XX
- males are XY
- sex hormone from BOTH parents
Y Chromosome
-only in men -determines sex
Testosterone
-most important male sex hormone -both genders have it but males have more -stimulates growth of male sex organs and development of male sex traits during puberty
Social Learning Theory
- we learn social behavior by observing and imitating
- and by rewards/punishments
Gender Schema Theory
-children learn from their culture what it means to be male or female
Critique of Piaget
- changes in each stage was less consistent than Piaget thought
- ex) three year olds are not always egocentric
- children’s knowledge develops at different ages in different areas
- babies can actually think and count!
- today researchers see development as continuous
Lev Vgotsky’s Social Cultural Cognitive Theory
- children’s mind grows with social interaction
- children get ideas through interacting with parents, teachers etc. who teach them about their culture (mentors)
- menta abilities effected by language
Scaffolding
-parents can provide a scaffold children can use to step to higher levels of thinking
Attachment/Bonding
- physical touch between moms and babies help create a bond between them
- parents become attached to children and children form a deep, affectionate relationship with caregivers
Temperament
- infants individual style and frequency of expressing themselves
- NYLS: followed subjects through life to determine types of temperament
Chess and Thomas
- early research on baby temperament
- easy babies: predictable, cheerful, not fussy
- difficult babies: irregular and irritable
- slow-to-warm-up babies: hesitant at first
- traces of these temperaments remains throughout childhood
Zone of Proximal Development
-learning occurs in the zone between being able to do something with guidance and alone
Harry Harlow Monkey Studies
- monkeys preferred cloth monkey over the mom that provided nourishment because resembled real monkey mom
- attachment contingent on touch and comfort
- total isolation led to disturbed monkeys
Parenting Styles
- Authoritative: both demanding and responsive
- Permissive: do whatever their children want
- Authoritarian: impose rules and expect obedience
- Neglectful: don’t take care of children
- Effect development of child later in life
- each style must be evaluated in its cultural context
Imprinting
- a rigid attachment that once made cannot be undone
- occurs during critical period
Chromosome/DNA/Genes/Genome
- Chromosome: rod shaped structures that contain DNA in nucleus, passed on by parents
- DNA: nucleus acids in a double helix, molecular basis of heredity
- Genes: specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA that express a certain trait
- Genome: organisms genetic material
- Mutations in DNA can lead to disorders or new traits
Natural Selection
-natural process in which those organism best suited to their ENVIRONMENT survive and reproduce, passing on their genes
Evolutionary Psychology
-Study of human cognition and behavior with respect to their evolutionary origins
Gender
-the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits associated with one sex
Behavioral Genetics
-Study of the relationship between genes and behavior of an organism
Identical Twins
-pair of twins that are produced from the same egg and look exactly alike
Fraternal Twin
-twins that are from different eggs and may not have the same sex or appearance
Heritability
- something passed from a parent to a child
- the variation in traits that is contributed to genetics
Molecular Genetics
-branch of genetics dealing with the structure and activity of genes
Culture
-beliefs, traits, and values shared by a racial, religious or social group
Sperm
-male gamete
Ovum
-female gamete, an egg
Ovulation
-the discharge of a mature ovum from the ovary
Fallopian Tube
-pair of tubes that carry the egg from the ovary to the uterus
Fertilization
- the union of a male sperm and a female egg
- development of a new person begins
Uterus
- womb
- muscular organ that contains and nourishes the young during development
Down Syndrome
- mental retardation, short stature, small head
- 3 chromosome 21s
Spina Bifida
-condition in which a persons spine does not develop completely before birth so part of the spinal cord is not covered
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
-death of an apparently healthy infant before 1 year of age that is of unknown cause and during sleep
James Marcia
- Identity Foreclosure: Person blindly accepts the values that were given in childhood. Committed but not searching.
- Identity Moratorium: Adolescent had vague ideologies, still searching and developing an identity
- Identity Diffusion: Not looking or committed to an identity, given up or not interested
- Identity Achievement: Having well defined values, may be expanded but the basics are there
Mary Ainsworth
- Strange Situation Test: infant plays with mom and a stranger in an unfamiliar room, baby observed when mom or both leave room
- Secure: mom is a home base, explore but return for comfort, happy to see mom when she returns -> better relationships later
- Insecure: cling to moms and won’t explore
- Insecure-avoidant: ignore mom when she returns
- Insecure-resistant: greet moms but are angry with her actions
- Insecure-Disorganized: behavior inconsistent, disturbed
Erikson Stage 1
- 1st year
- trust vs. mistrust
- trust needs will be met or learn to mistrust the world
Erikson Stage 2
- 2nd year
- autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- children learn to make choices, or become uncertain and doubtful
Erikson Stage 3
- 3rd to 5th year
- initiative vs. guilt
- learn to begin activities and enjoy accomplishments or feel guilty for their attempts at independence
Erikson Stage 4
- 6th year to puberty
- industry vs. inferiority
- children develop curiosity and excitement about learning or feel inferior and lose interest
Erikson Stage 5
- adolescence
- identity vs. Role confusion
- see themselves as unique people with an ideology or become confused about who they are and what they want out of life
Erikson Stage 6
- early adulthood
- intimacy vs. isolation
- commit to others or become isolated
Erikson Stage 7
- middle age
- generativity vs. stagnation
- adults give and care for others or become self centered and inactive
Erikson Stage 8
- old age
- integrity vs. despair
- reflect and are assured that their lives were meaningful or in despair abut their failures
Adolescence
-transition from childhood to adulthood
Puberty
- period of sexual maturation
- capable of reproduction
Primary vs. secondary Sex Traits
- primary: body structures that allow reproduction ex) testes and ovaries
- secondary: nonreproductive sexual traits ex) deeper voice, breasts, hips
Menarche
-1st menstrual period
Spermarche
-1st time boys emit sperm
Adolescent Sexuality
- major issue
- leads to declining interest in school and sexually transmitted diseases
- teen pregnancies!
Freuds Psychosexual Stages of Development
- who we are is related to our sex drive
- ORAL (0-1.5) mom’s breast = love and food
- ANAL (1.5-3) potty training leads child to believe they have power
- PHALLIC (4-5) child feels attracted to parent of opposite sex
- LATENT (5-puberty) sexual feelings are suppressed
- GENITAL (puberty onward) renewed sexual interest
Oedipus/Electra Complex
- child feels attracted towards their parents
- Freuds phallic Stage, ages 4-5
Resiliency
- children who aren’t negatively effected by dangerous risk factors such as war
- resilient children tend to be smart, talented, faithful, happy, focused, and have good relationships with those around them
Adolescent relationship with peers
- teens face pressure to drink and do drugs
- teens self esteem is effected by their peers opinions of them
- teens can be influenced positively or negatively by their peers
Adolescent relationship with parents
- teens try to have a greater say -> conflicts
- bond with parents deteriorates but most teens maintain a pretty good relationship with their parents
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning
- PRE-CONVENTIONAL: under 9, selfish, morality based on avoiding punishment
- CONVENTIONAL: 9-19, morality consists of following certain rules and expectations, duty to family or country
- POSTCONVENTIONAL: young adulthood, morality based on personal standards or universal principles of justice, equality etc.
Gilligan and Critique of Kohlberg’s Stages
- Gilligan studied the role of gender in morality, determined that for females they feel a need to protect relationships and care for others
- men focus more on justice than females
- moral ideals not absolute or universal
Jeffrey Arnett
- suggested that adulthood emerges as early as 18
- explore life’s possibilities through education, dating, travel etc.
Menopause
- women in middle adulthood experience a shutdown of reproductive capabilities
- period stops
Fluid vs. crystallized intelligence
- FLUID: speed and accuracy of info processing decline early in adult life, noticeable in late adulthood
- CRYSTAL: abilities learned over a lifetime, reading, writing, professional skills, decline at a much slower pace
Midlife Transition vs. midlife crisis
- feel invigorated and liberated or upset and have a midlife crisis
- examine and modify lives around age 40
Terminal Drop
- sharp decline in mental functioning that occurs in late adulthood
- shortly before death
Empty Nest Syndrome
- parents feel depressed when children leave the house
- can promote improved relationships
Homogamy
-marriage and mating between similar individuals
Cohabitation
-couples live together
Alzheimer’s Disease
- progressive disease
- characterized by memory loss, language deterioration, poor judgment, confusion etc
- type of dementia
Dementia
- progressive loss of cognitive function
- memory problems and confused thinking
5 Stages of Death and Dying
- DENIAL: believe diagnosis is wrong
- ANGER: frustration taken out on family, “why would this happen to me!”
- BARGAINING: hope that the individual can avoid the cause of grief
- DEPRESSION: individual despairs
- ACCEPTANCE: embrace the future
Role Diffusion
-period in which teens aren’t interested in their identity and not ready to commit or explore
Imaginary Audience
- teen egocentric
- believes others are watching and paying attention to their actions
Erogenous Zones
-area of the body that lead to feelings of pleasure
Fixation
- frustration that needs were not met or overindulgence lead to fixation
- portion of a Persian sexual energy is permanently in a certain stage -> acting childish
Bandura BOBO doll Studies
-studies with aggression towards dolls demonstrated that aggression can be learned through observation
John Bowlby and Internal Working Models
- child has innate need to attach to someone (normally mom)
- child should receive care from this figure or there can be serious consequences
- INTERNAL WORKING MODEL: Person’s interactions with others is guided by their memories and expectations, primary caregiver acts as a “prototype” for future relationships
1) model of others as trustworthy 2) model of self as valuable 3) model of self as effective when dealing with other ppl
Adaptation
-child changing to meet situational demands
Prenatal Testing
- focus on detecting problems with baby as soon as possible
- amniocentesis: sampling of amniotic fluid to test for abnormalities in fetus
- chorionic villus sampling: test during early pregnancy in which a tissue sample is taken from the fetal part of the placenta
- ultrasound imaging: images of what the baby looks like, determine sex and physical defects
Neural Tube
-hollow structure in the embryo that the brain and spinal chord form from
Cohort Effect
-confounding variable in studies that is due to differences in ppl because of age and thus experience
Meme
-idea, behavior or style that spread within a culture
Personal Space
-area around a person they regard as psychologically theirs
Norm
- accepted behavior
- unspoken rules of society
Interaction
-nature and nurture interact in development
PKU
- inherited metabolic disorder caused by enzyme deficiency
- causes severe mental retardation
