Sport Psychology Flashcards
what are the three personality theories?
–trait theory
–social learning theory
–interactionist theory
define personality.
–the sum total of an individuals characteristics which. makes them unique
–stable, enduring + unique to each individual
what is a trait?
–a characteristic of personality which is inherited at birth
–stable, enduring + consistent in all situations
trait theory
–personality is innate/inherited
–behaviour = function of personality / B = F (p)
what are the four personality types + who identified these?
–Eysenck
–introvert= tend to be shy + reserved, preferring isolation
–extrovert= affiliate well with others, outgoing + sociable
–stable= display predictable emotions in appropriate situations + don’t experience intense stress
–neurotic= display extreme + unpredictable emotions in the form of mood swings + high degrees of stress
what are the drawbacks to the trait theory?
–see traits as more fixed + long lasting than they really are
–haven’t been useful in consistently predicting behaviour - unreliable
–fail to take into account the effect of a situation on an individuals behaviour/attitudes
–ignores that fact that people adapt to specific environmental situations
–influence of environment + other people on shaping personality is ignored
social learning theory
–all behaviour/personality is learned
–learning occurs via environmental experiences + through the influence of other people (significant others)
– behaviour = Function of Environment / B = F (e)
–behaviour is learned when its reinforced
interactionist theory
– combines the trait and state theory
–personality is modified and behaviour is formed when genetically inherited traits are triggered by environmental circumstances
– behaviour = Function of Personality X Environment / B = F (PxE)
what is Hollanders Concentric Ring Theory?
–he proposed that personality has three levels
–role-related behaviour= surface of personality
–typical response= usual response in most situations
–psychological core= the ‘real’ you
psychological core
–the ‘real’ you
–beliefs and values that remain fairly permanent
typical response
–usual response in most situations
–usually indicates your psychological core
role-related behaviour
–surface of personality
–in certain situations we may behave differently
How can knowledge of the interactionist perspective improve performance?
–coach could predict any potential unacceptable or aggressive behaviour before it happens + remove the played from the situation
–coach could identify situations that cause inappropriate actions or a dropping of performance + create similar situations in training so the played can learn to cope
–coach could use it to change the players behaviour by encouraging them to adapt to specific circumstances
what is an attitude?
–a mode of behaviour that is thought to be a typical response of an individual
–linked to personality
–can be positive or negative
–directed towards an object, person, place, thing or event
how are attitudes formed?
–from experiences
–socialisation= when someone associates with others + picks up their opinions and values
–we learn from friends, parents, role models
–through repeated or reinforced behaviour
–could stem from culture, social class, stereotyping
explain the Triadic Model of Attitudes.
–cognitive component= what you think
–affective component= your feelings or emotions
–behavioural component= what you do- actions of the performer
What is the Cognitive Dissonance Theory?
–if a person holds 2 opposing ideas, emotional conflict or dissonance arises
–if someone has a negative attitude towards exercise, a coach can apply pressure by changing one of the attitude components to create an uneasy feeling
What is the Persuasive Communication Theory?
–the use of persuasion to change an individuals attitude
–must consider:
>persuader= needs to be perceived as significant + of high status
>message= needs to be presented in a way that makes the recipient want to change an attitude
>recipient= they must really wish to change their attitude
>situation= timing persuasion + having support for encouragement
what are the strategies to improve an attitude?
–rewards successful elements of performance
–use positive role models
–give positive reinforcement for correct behaviour
–give negative reinforcement for unacceptable behaviour
–ensure training is enjoyable to maintain motivation
Define arousal
the state of general preparedness of the body for action, involving physiological and psychological factors
What are the physiological signs of arousal?
–increased HR
–increased breathing rate
–nausea
–increase muscle tension
–sweating
–need to urinate
–dry mouth
–increased blood pressure
–increased adrenaline
–dazed look in eyes
What are the psychological signs of arousal?
–increased focus
–increased concentration
–heightened awareness of. cues
–narrowing of attention
–decreased reaction time
–anxiety
–tension
–negative self-talk
–difficulties sleeping
–fear + anger
Drive Theory of Arousal
–as arousal increased so does performance
– Performance = a function of Drive X Habit / P = f (D x H)
–expert is more likely to see improved performance as arousal increases, but a novice is likely to make more errors
Improved performance due to increased drive is dependent on…?
–the stage of learning/ experiences of a player
Explain the Inverted U Theory.
– as arousal increases, so does performance but only up to an optimal point
–any further increase can cause performance to deteriorate
what is the optimal level of arousal dependent on in the Inverted U Theory?
– experience
–personality
–task
Explain the Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin)
–people respond differently to arousal
–each athlete has their own preferred level of arousal
–an athlete is either ‘in the zone’ or not
what are the features of being ‘in the zone’ ?
–performer is confident and calm
– they feel in control of their actions
–they are fully focussed
–performance is smooth and effortless
–peak flow experience occurs
what are the four types of anxiety?
–trait
–state
–cognitive
–somatic
what is anxiety?
–a state of nervousness or worry
trait anxiety
–a personality trait
–when a player feels nervous in most sporting situations
–genetic
–stable
state anxiety
–a response to a particular sporting situation
–a temporary rush of anxiety
–caused by a threatening circumstance
e.g: penalty
cognitive anxiety
–psychological
–irrational thinking or worries about performance
–don’t believe in ability to perform + can lead to loss of concentration
=negative impact on performance
somatic anxiety
–physiological= response of the body
e.g: increased HR, sweating, muscular tension
–increase in somatic anxiety can improve performance up to a certain point, then it decreases after that
what are the methods to measure anxiety?
–self-report questionnaires
–observations
–physiological testing
what are the benefits of self-report questionnaires?
–quick
–easy
–cheap
–efficient- large groups can be assessed quickly
what are the drawbacks of self-report questionnaires?
–players might not answer truthfully
–dependent on the mood of individual
–time pressure could cause some answers to be rushed = incorrect responses
what are the benefits of observations?
–true to life = valid
what are the drawbacks of observations?
–subjective
–time consuming
–performers can change behaviour if they know they’re being watched
what are the benefits of physiological measures?
–results are factual and true to life = valid
–can be measured in training + competition
–advances in tech can measure the HR which relays back to the coach immediately
what are the drawbacks of physiological measures?
–training is required to use the devices
–cost may deter amateur performers
–wearing a device can restrict movement
–if performer knows they are being measured, they may experience more stress = false readings
validity
–whether the data collected actually measures what it sets out to measure
reliability
–the degree to which data collection is consistent + stable over time
aggression
–forceful behaviour in sport
–intent to harm
–outside of the rules
–reactive
–out of control
–deliberate + hostile
assertion
–channelled aggression
–controlled
–well-motivated
–generally within the rules of the game
–goal-directed
–not intended to harm others
e.g: to drive forcefully through a group of players to score in basketball
what is the instinct theory of aggression?
–a trait perspective
–claims that all performers are born with an aggressive instinct that will surface if provoked
e.g: a player may react to a bad foul by retaliating aggressively
what are the evaluations against the instinct aggression theory?
–not all aggression is reactive + spontaneous
–some aggression is learned or pre-intended
what is the social learning theory of aggression?
–a learned response
–can be copied from others, particularly if behaviour is reinforced
–learned from significant others
e.g: you see an experienced player foul an opponent off the ball without the ref noticing, this distracts the player and they don’t score. You then copy this in a later game
what is an evaluation against the social learning theory of aggression?
–aggression can be instinctive + reactive rather than being learned
frustration-aggression hypothesis
–aggression occurs when goals are blocked + the performer becomes frustrated —> aggression
–the aggressive act will then reduce the aggressive drive = catharsis
–but if player is unable to release the aggressive drive, then self-punishment will occur = more frustration + increased aggressive drive
catharsis
–letting off steam
–sport is used as a release for channelling aggression
–experienced once the frustrated player has had a chance to release their aggression
what is an evaluation of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
–not all frustration leads to aggression + not all aggression is the result of frustration
what are the reasons for resulting to aggression?
–losing
–poor play by you
–poor play by a team mate
–disagreement with the ref
–a hostile crowd
–pressure to succeed
–a high pressure game
–being fouled
aggressive-cue hypothesis
–increased frustration will lead to an increased arousal level + a drive towards aggressive responses
–aggressive responses will only occur if learned ‘cues’ are present to act as a stimulus
examples of cues: away pitch at your rivals, an opponent you have previously clashed with
how can a coach prevent aggression?
–substitute an aggressive behaviour
–reinforce non-aggressive behaviour
–point out non-aggressive role models
–set out non-aggressive goals
–don’t reinforce aggressive acts in training
–talk to players to calm them down
how can a player prevent aggression?
–walk away from the situation
–use mental rehearsal or relaxation to lower arousal
–channel aggression into assertion
how can officials prevent aggression?
–punish aggression with fines
–talk to players to calm them down
–apply the rules fairly + consistently
–apply sanctions immediately
achievement motivation
–the tendency to approach or avoid competitive situations
–looks at how much desire a player has
= desire to succeed- fear of failure
what is the level of achievement motivation dependent on?
–personality
–situation
NAF
= need to avoid failure
–more drawn to easy tasks that can be completed successfully completed
–seek secure + safe options rather than risky ones
–demonstrate avoidance behaviour
–lack confidence
–will avoid 50/50 challenges
–give up easily - won’t give it a 2nd try
–don’t like feedback or evaluation - impacts their self-esteem
NACH
= need to achieve
–will try hard in most situations to be successful
–more drawn to more difficult tasks as they will gain a lot of satisfaction if successful
–approach situations with enthusiasm
–take risks
–seek pride + satisfaction
–welcome feedback + evaluation
–confident
–task persistent
–attribute success internally
what are strategies for developing NACH performers?
–attribute success internally= tell the player they are the cause of the success
–improving confidence
–reinforcement= offer praise + rewards to those who achieve
–goal setting= achievable + new challenges should be set
–allowing success= set tasks that can be accomplished in early development
achievement goal theory
–motivation + task persistence depend on the type of goals set by the performer + how they measure success
–if an outcome goal is set + they succeed, then pride + satisfaction are maintained
–if they fail, then confidence will decrease
–if outcome goals are set too hard they could be discouraged
what are the 4 types of others that can be present when playing sport, according to Zajonc?
–audience = the people who are watching (spectators or Tv audience)
–co-actors = those who are doing the same thing at the same time but might not be in competition
–competition = those who are in direct competition
–social reinforcers = people who have a direct influence on the performance + their presence is a part of the event (coach)
what ‘others’ are passive in Zajonc’s theory?
–audience
–co-actors
how do passive others present at a competition affect performers?
–they increase the arousal of the performer
–could increase/decrease level of performance
if others are present, what does the impact on performance depend on?
–type of task
–level of experience
–stage of learning
how is a beginner likely to respond to others being present when they are performing?
–increased anxiety + over-arousal
–causing poor execution of skills
= social inhibition
how is an expert likely to respond to others being present when they are performing?
–increased motivation + encouraged by support
–can cope with the demands of the crowd
–responses will be correct even under pressure (due to skills being well-learnt, habitual + automatic)
–performance is more likely to be enhanced
= social facilitation
what is the effect of others being present on complex skills?
–negative effect
–these skills require a lot of thought, information processing + decision making
= increased arousal = decreased level of performance
evaluation apprehension
–perceived fear of being watched
–the perception of players when someone significant is watching is that they are being judged
–can be positive or negative depending on the perfomer
how can social inhibition be prevented?
–getting the players familiar with playing in front of a crowd
–gradually introducing evaluation/feedback
–improving focus + concentration by selective attention
what are the features of a group dynamic?
–a collective identity = easily recognised, pride + feel affiliation with one another
–interaction= the way players work together to complete a task, members should have defined roles
–communication= verbal + non-verbal
–a shared goal or purpose= achieving success keeps players working for each other
What are the 4 parts to Tuckman’s theory of group formation?
1–forming = where the group gets to know each other
2–storming = potential conflict as individuals compete to establish their position, status or role
3–norming = once any conflict has been resolved, the team settles down + begins to cooperate, developing cohesion
4– performing = all players are now interactive + working together to achieve their goals, members support each other + understand their roles in a team
what does the length of time group formation takes depend on?
–size of the group
–difficult of the task
–experience of the players
cohesion
–involves every team member is working hard at the same time = co-action
–each player may have different roles + this must be integrated with the roles of other members = interaction
what are the two types of cohesion?
–task
–social
task cohesion
–looks at the end of the team pulling together, fulfilling their individual role to achieve the goal as a group
–can over-ride the problems of social cohesion
social cohesion
–the interaction between team members + how they work with each other
–may socialise away from sport
what may be a negative effect of social cohesion?
–may create sub-groups + therefore friction
what may be positive effects of social cohesion?
–helps interaction
–improved communication
–improved team spirit
what are the 3 concepts involved in Steiner’s model of group performance?
–actual productivity
–potential productivity
–faulty processes
actual productivity
–the team performance during a game or event + refers to the extent of successful interaction
potential productivity
–the maximum capability of the group when cohesiveness is strongest
faulty processes
–factors that can go wrong in team performance
what is the equation linking actual productivity, potential productivity + faulty processes?
actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes
what are the 2 types of faulty processes?
–coordination losses = the Ringelmann effect
–motivational losses = social loafing
co-ordination losses/ the Ringelmann effect
–any breakdown in teamwork + synchronisation of the group
motivational losses/ social loafing
–relate to an individual who suffers a decrease in motivation during performance + so withdraws effort + ‘coasts’
what are the causes of social loafing?
–feeling that others aren’t trying
–low self-confidence
–feeling that performances are never watched or valued
–negative experiences
–loss of motivation if task is perceived too difficult
what are the causes of the Ringelmann effect?
–injuries
–lack of incentive
–vague individual roles
–low sum of players overall ability
–personality- low trait confidence
–inadequate leadership
what are the ways of improving productivity?
–structured practice to ensure all players know tactics + strategies
–give individuals special roles/responsibilities
–effective leader
–team bonding exercises
–avoid social cliques
–develop confidence
–develop support within the team
–maintain stability
–maintain motivation with varied practice
how can you avoid social loafing?
–recognise + rewards the efforts of players
–give specific roles/ responsibilities
–use goal setting
–use video analysis
–avoid situations where social loafing may occur
–allow success in the early stages
–develop fitness
Attribution Theory
–the reasons given for winning or losing
–can be given by coaches, managers + players
locus of causality
–the amount of control the player had over the result
= internal - within control
= external - out of control
locus of stability
–reasons for winning/losing can be changeable
=unstable - likely to change over a period of time
= stable - unlikely to change over a short time period
what does internal + stable attribution refer to?
–ability
what does external + stable attribution refer to?
–task difficulty
what does internal + unstable attribution refer to?
–effort
what does external + unstable attribution refer to?
–luck
what does Vealey’s model of Sport Confidence look at?
– the influence of trait confidence, state confidence, the situation + competitive orientation
trait confidence
–a belief in the ability to do well in a range of sports
state confidence
–a belief in the ability to master a specific sporting moment
competitive orientation
–the degree to which a performer is drawn to challenging situations
objective sporting situation
–the performer takes into account the situation in which the task is being undertaken
what is the effect on trait + state confidence if the skill has been performed before?
–high trait confidence
–high state confidence
what can impact a performers trait/state confidence?
–crowd size
–score at the time
= can create pressure on players
how does a positive result/outcome impact confidence?
–evaluation my lead to improved confidence + developing a competitive orientation
–player is prepared to compete + try hard in most sporting situations = approach behaviour
how does a negative result/outcome impact confidence?
–evaluation may lead to decreased confidence + reduced competitive orientation
–player may reduce effort levels = NAF
what does Bandura’s self-efficacy model look at?
–the concept of self-confidence in any one situation
–confidence can vary with the situation + from moment to moment
self-efficacy
–the belief in your ability to master a specific sporting situation
–impacts the confidence of individual players + players in the team
what are the four factors affecting self-efficacy?
–performance accomplishments = self-efficacy is influenced by what you have done in the past or past experiences
–vicarious experience = watching others do the task + being successful
–verbal persuasion = the power of reinforcement + encouragement
–emotional arousal = a perception of the effects of anxiety on sport
how can confidence be improved?
–use relaxation or stress management techniques to control arousal
–give an accurate demonstration
–point out past successful experiences
–give support + encouragement
–allow success during training by setting tasks within the capabilities of the performer
–set attainable goals
–attribute any success achieved to the athlete
–coach or player may use mental practice to help the performer go over the routine or sequence in the mind
define ‘leader’
–someone who influences you towards your goals
–they play a role in maintaining effort + motivation by inspiring the team + setting targets
what are the two types of leaders?
– EMERGENT = already belongs to the group
– PRESCRIBED = selected from outside the group
what are the benefits of an emergent leader?
–already familiar with team members
–understand the team dynamics
–trusted + valued member so listened to + respected
what are the drawbacks of an emergent leader?
–maybe too familiar with the team + not taken seriously
–hard to make difficult decisions when teammates are friends
what are the benefits of a prescribed leader?
–brings new ideas to the team
–has a bit of distance from the team
what are the drawbacks of a prescribed leader?
–doesn’t understand team dynamics
–make decisions based on knowledge, not what might be best for the team
what are the three styles of leadership?
–task-orientated/autocratic
–social/person orientated/democratic
–laissez-faire
describe the autocratic style of leadership.
–make all the decisions
–motivated to get results + reach targets + completing the task as quickly + effectively as possible
–will not delegate responsibility
–required in dangerous situations
–if the coach isn’t present, the group may fail to work well
–best suited when quick decisions are needed for large groups
describe the democratic style of leadership.
–adopt a more sympathetic approach + seek opinions from the group before making decisions
–will delegate responsibility
–believe in consultation + interested in developing meaningful relationships
–group will usually continue to work when the coach isn’t present
describe the laissez-faire style of leadership.
–leader will stand aside + allow the group to make its own decisions
–does very little
–used effectively when the group has lots of experience, but if they are not experienced, it could cause a breakdown in cohesion
What is Chelladurai’s multi-dimensional model of leadership?
–he identified 3 influences that interact to produce effective leadership:
-> SITUATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
->LEADER CHARACTERISTICS
-> GROUP MEMBER CHARACTERISTICS
–he identified 3 types of behaviour:
-> REQUIRED
-> ACTUAL
-> PREFERRED
situational characteristics
–the type of task, numbers in the team, time constraints + personality
leader characteristics
– experience + personality
group member characteristics
–age, gender + experience
required behaviour
–what the situation demands
actual behaviour
–what the leader decided to do
preferred behaviour
–what the group would prefer
what does Fiedler’s Contingency model focus on?
–the situation
–whether its good, bad or moderate
what style of leadership is best suited for most/least favourable situations?
–autocratic/task-orientated
what style of leadership is best suited for moderately favourable situations?
–democratic/ person-orientated
what does the favourability of a situation depend on?
–the task
–the leader-group relationship
–leaders authority
what are the features of a most favourable situation?
–strong leader
–group harmony
–clear task
–respect for leader
–high ability
–high motivation
–support
–task-orientated
what are the features of a least favourable situation?
–weak leader
–group hostility
–unclear task
–little respect for leader
–low ability
–low motivation
–some support
–task-orientated
what are the features of a moderately favourable situation?
–some harmony
–some motivation
–some clarity
–need for consultation
what is eustress?
–the positive feeling of stress
stressor
–the cause of the stress
name some examples of stressors.
–injury
–playing an important match
–playing against good opponents
–playing to get an important reward
–fear of failure caused by pressure of being watched by significant others
Cognitive stress
–psychological
–negative thoughts + feelings
–loss of concentration
attentional narrowing
–when the ability to take in information from the environment is reduce due to increased arousal + anxiety levels
Somatic stress
–physiological
–increased HR + sweating
–muscular tension
what are the cognitive stress management techniques?
–thought stopping
–positive self-talk
–imagery
–visualisation
–mental rehearsal
–attentional control + cue utilisation
explain thought stopping in terms of stress management.
–a learned action to stop negative thoughts + redirect attention back to the task
explain positive self-talk
–replacing negative thoughts with positive thoughts
imagery
–recreating a successful image of an action from a past performance
–gives the performer the feel of the action + the positive emotions felt from it
–can be used as a mental escape by imagining a calm place
visualisation
–uses a mental image of the skill perhaps performing the skill successfully in training which can then be re-lived in competition
internal imagery/visualisation
–looking at the emotions + feelings involved
e.g: kinaesthesis + satisfaction
external imagery/visualisation
–when the player visualises them performing the action as if they were on Tv
mental rehearsal
–going over the movements in the mind before an action takes place
attentional control + cue utilisation
– performers focus on incorrect stimuli + lose concentration, so these techniques counteract this
cue utilisation
–as arousal levels increase, this influences the ability to taken on board cues
–low arousal = process plenty of cues
–high arousal = only limited info can be processed, causing attentional wastage
–moderate arousal = can pick up the relevant info + performance will be most successful
What did Niddefer say about attention styles?
–to avoid attentional wastage, performers choose an attention styles that suits the situation
–if the correct style is chosen at the right time, stress should be lowered + performance should be enhanced
what are the 4 attention styles?
–BROAD = when a number of cues are identified
–NARROW = focussing on one or two cues only
–EXTERNAL = info drawn from the environment
–INTERNAL = info used from within the performer
psychological skills training
– the player trains + practices using cognitive stress management techniques, with the aid of a sports psychologist
what are the somatic stress management technique?
–biofeedback
–progressive muscular relaxation
–centring
biofeedback
–use of a measuring device to recognise physical changes that happen under stress
–eventually the performer can detect the symptoms without the device + can use the techniques to calm down
progressive muscular relaxation
– muscles are tensed + then relaxed from the periphery of the body to the core
–correct use depends on ability to hold tension in a muscle for an extended period of time, otherwise incorrect use could cause injury
centring
–a form of breathing control
–performer learns to relax the shoulders + chest whilst concentrating on slow controlled breaths
–this diverts attention away form the stressful situation + once mastered, it can be used quickly + efficiently
