Sport and society Flashcards
What was living in pre-industrial Britain like?
- poor hygiene
- limited transport and communication
- 80% was rural areas
- vast gap between the rich and poor
- many people were unable to read or write
- most poor people worked for the rich (mainly within the agricultural industry - very busy and intense jobs)
- society was static and cruel
How did living conditions in pre-industrial Britain affect sport?
- limited transport etc = less competition as people were unable to travel far away for fixtures
- working for rich in agriculture = limited free/leisure time to participate in sport
- illiteracy = unable to read the rules and therefore play the sport
- gap between rich and poor = differences in the types of sports played by the very separate classes
- poor hygiene = more injury and less available for fixtures as people became ill quickly
List the 4 Cs that are associated with pre-industrial Britain
- Cruel
- Countryside
- Communications
- Clear class divide
What were activities like?
- male-dominated
- aggressive
- localised
- occasional
- no rules / uncodified
- violent
- injuries
- damage to property
- reflects harsh society
- rural
What is a popular recreation?
the sport and pastimes for people in pre-industrial Britain
What is a feudal system?
a way of structuring society around a relationship, derived from holding of land in exchange for service of labour
What is mob football?
- played by peasants
- clear division in society (2 tiers)
- localised
- played in fields and villages with natural resources they had available to them (e.g. pigs bladder)
- played on holy days and festivals due to lack of leisure time
- male-dominated + violent + unruly in nature
What is real tennis also known as?
- ’ The Kings Game’
- ‘Royal Tennis’
What is real tennis?
- did not reflect typical popular recreation characteristics of many activities of the time
- upper class males of society
- inside sport
- played with high moral code + lacked violence
- upper class relied on lower class to do labour so they didn’t work and had plenty of leisure time (unlike LC)
- had plenty of money for facilities etc, that LC couldn’t afford for this sport
- had access to travel so not all local; more competition than in LC sports
- requires skill
What is athletics in pre-industrial Britain?
- footmen played it e.g. hired servants competed as messengers
- form of competitive running / walking in 17th/18th century
Define patron
a member of the gentry who looked after the lower-class performer e.g. arranging competitions for them to compete in + putting prize money while genuinely looking after the welfare of the performer.
What is athletics also known as?
foot racing
Why were popular recreations eventually banned in the 19th century?
- associated with wagering and drunken behaviour
- damage to property
- a lot of injury and in serious cases, death
- violent and unruly nature
What does HITFOR stand for? What does it represent also?
Lack of health and hygiene
Lack of income
Lack of time
Lack of facility provision
Lack of space, lots of overcrowding
Lack of rights
Represents: the initial effects of the Industrial Revolution (1st half of 19th century)
How did the industrial revolution change sport and society?
SPORT
- popular recreations = rational recreations
- order, logic and structure applied to sport
- restrictions made on mob football and blood games
- no access to private facility / personal equipment
- little space for mob games due to factories being built
PEOPLE
- more workers at factories rather than in agriculture
- ‘seasonal’ to ‘machine’ = 12 hour shifts 6 days a week
- poverty = little spare income
How did poor health affect recreation?
- people taking time off work
- had less pay for time taken off
- less income for leisure pursuits
- overworking = health issues
What improved in the second half of the industrial revolution?
- Health and hygiene
- Increase in wages + time for sport
- Three-tier society
- Ex-public schoolboys
- Values of athleticism
- Industrial patronage
- Transport + communication
- Cheaper travel
Who was the main founder of the Wenlock Games?
Dr William Penny Brookes
What year was the Wenlock games founded?
1850
What were the Wenlock Games?
- mixture of traditional country sports e.g. football, cricket, running, hurdles, and quoits.)
- held in Crystal Palace
- promoted moral, physical and intellectual improvements, especially in lower-class people of Wenlock
- encouraged outdoor activities + skillful players with prizes
- mimics Greek Olympic Games (modern)
- rules written, people from all over country were attracted
- pageantry + celebrations = important
- campaigned for PE to be on school curriculum + promoted benefits of sports
Mnemonic for 4 vital points of urbanisation
W(orking conditions)
W(ork space)
W(orking class population)
L(oss of traditional sports
How did the railway develop sport?
- movement of teams/spectators, nationwide fixtures developing on a regular basis
- improved access to different parts of the country, leagues formed with clubs across the country
- cheaper train travel, working class could follow their team home or away
- improved access to countryside, reachable
How did the church influence sport?
- facilities like halls were provided
- encouraged civilised behaviour - shift from popular recreation to rational recreation
- increased attendance at church + holy days
- organised sports teams.
What is muscular Christianity ?
- The church helping promote social control (improved behaviour) through civilised activities
- Using sport to increase attendance in church
What is codification?
The development of strict rules, national governing bodies were formed, mainly by old public school and university boys
How did competition have an impact on participation in sport?
it was the formation of leagues and competitions in universities, public schools and NGOs via middle class involvement - more competition
What was increased leisure time and how did it impact sport?
it was spare time people had outside work and this increased as factories opened, giving more time off work to get involved in sport
What is urbanisation?
The movement of large numbers of people from rural areas, to towns and cities, seeking regular work in factories.
What is rational recreation ?
The sports pastimes for the lower classes, made by the middle classes to be ruled, well-presented and controlled
What class did the Wenlock Agricultural Reading Society firm and what was it’s aim?
The Olympic Class - aimed to promote moral, physical and intellectual improvements, especially to lower classes by offering prizes to those who are successful.
What else did Dr William Penny Brookes and the Wenlock Olympian Society do to promote sport ?
• campaigned for Physical Education to be in the school curriculum
• promoted the benefits of sport and physical exercise nationally
How did communications change after the Industrial Revolution?
• There was a gradual improvement with educational provision; society became more literate.
• Developments in printed media allowed people to have more knowledge on the benefits of exercise
Why did the church promote sport?
• encouraged social control
• diverted people away from ‘less socially acceptable activities’ like drinking and wagering
• to improve morality of the working classes
• to increase church attendance
• promoting healthy body/healthy mind link (through YMCA)
• promotes Christian values
What did the Church do to promote sport?
• provided facilities such as halls and fields
• set up teams and whole clubs
• organised competitions and fixtures
• developed programmes like Scouts, the Boy’s Brigade, the YMCA etc (promoting physical activities to all involved and applying sport into the programmes)
What was the emergence of the middle class a result of?
Urbanisation and industrialisation - they were self-made me who took advantage of the new business opportunities in new industries (played sort with high moral code as they developed strict rules as wanted to reflect this into the lower classes)
How did the middle class improve sporting provision for the lower class?
• codification - development of strict rules through NGBs, old public school and university boys
• competitions - development of league and cup fixtures via church/NGBs/factories/universities etc
• public provisions e.g. parks and baths (via middle class philanthropists like factory owners and church)
• increased leisure time - factory owners gave employees a little more time off to play/watch sport
• ‘professionalism’ - introducing early commercial factors in to sport e.g. agents and promoters and factory teams formed, paying broken time payments for footbal
Define philanthropist
Kind, generous members of the working class who had a social conscience so were willing to provide a better quality of life among lower class
How did public school and university old boys influence development of sport through the British Empire?
• As TEACHERS - developed teams + taught sporting values to schools in the Empire
• As DIPLOMATS - travelled world and took sport with them
• as INDUSTRIALISTS - set up teams in factories and gave more time off
• as CLERGY - developed church teams / became missionaries and took sport with them
• as OFFICERS in BRITISH ARMY - payed sport with armed services
• forming NGBs - which codified sport and established leagues etc which spread through the Empire
What is amateur ideal?
• no such thing as win at all costs
• playing sport was based upon sportsmanship and game etiquette- unwritten rules of the sport
Why were NGBs needed?
• more leagues required
• more fixtures required
• more clubs forming
• wanted to maintain ‘amateur ideal’
• threats of commercialism
• different public schools played different versions
• rules /codification required
What are the characteristics of rational recreation?
• respectability
• referees / officials present
• purpose-built facilities e.g. stadiums etc
• skills/tactics based
• stringent administration and codification
• regionally/nationally/regularly played
• amateurism and professionalism
• has impacts from revolutions
• gambling controlled
• impact of religion
Define amateur
A person who plays for the love of the sport and receives no financial gain
Define professionalism
a person who plays sport for financial gain
What are the positive impacts of amateurism?
• amateurs were held in higher status than professionals
• there was a code of amateurism (based on playing by the set rules of the NGBs)
• adhered to code of ethics (sportsmanship etc)
• belong to social elite (lots of money and free time to be able to play for the love of it)
• participate in sport was viewed as more valuable than winning (training frowned upon as constituted professionalism)
• amateurs held the ‘all-rounders’ in high regard (being successful in multiple sports)
• amateurs = elite performers in 19th century
• new middle class admired cultural values of gentlemen amateurs
What were the positive impacts of 19th century professionalism on sport development?
• working class received a wage / extra money so they could afford to take time off work to play sport
• early pros in walking / running were paid based on performance so standard improved drastically
• in late 19th century with more media coverage of sport and wages for playing sport slowly increasing - earning money for sport was viewed as avenue of social mobility, creating determination to succeed.
Describe early 20th century amateurs
• high status in sport and society maintained (top of NGBs etc)
• controllers of sport
• top performers
• high moral (still loved the game the same as before)
Describe modern day amateurs
• lower status than pros
• some high-level performers are still not professionals
• performance at top level of most sports is open to all
• some receive financial gain from lottery but only for training expenses so gain no profit
• blurring of professional and amateur distinctions as society has less chance of exclusion than before
Describe modern day professionalism
• all classes can compete
• people respected for talents and making it to the top
• high rewards via media and sponsorships
• more time to train as it’s a full time job - higher standard of play
• celebrity status - large financial gain allows luxurious quality of life
• positive role models - inspiring amateurs to become motivated
• large spectator attendance due to better and cheaper transport
What caused the rationalisation and modern-day development of Association Football?
• Urbanisation - lots of people in one area but lack of space led to purpose-built facilities for football in order to match the demand
• Increased leisure time - workers given more time off work to play and watch sport
• More disposable income - increased wages allowed working class to pay for entry fee to games and travel
• Improved transport - development of trains allowed fans to travel to away fixtures
• Increased professionalism - more opportunities to have a full time job as a footballer allowed working class to escape factory system
• Social class links - middle-class influence and approval gave football more ‘respectability’ with high morality etc. Challenged my lower class using it as the ‘people’s game’.
• Increased organisation - 1863 FA was set up to make the sport more structured via codification with referees
What is the Bosman Ruling?
A European Court of Justice decision made in 1955 concerning freedom of movement for workers. It allowed free movement of labour in the EU; players could move to another club at the end of their contract without a transfer fee being paid.
What are the socio-economic factors leading to an increase in opportunities for women to participate?
• want for equal opportunity
• increased media coverage
• more female role models
• more provision via PE programmes
• increased encouragement / approval via the FA
• more clubs being formed
• more funding put into the women’s game
• more free time
Who was Wendy Toms ?
• first female official (assistant referee)
• break though of female officials after this has been very slow
• ‘Women’s referee development pathway’ has been created as a result
Lawn tennis summary
• initially (1874) a middle-class form of the game in gardens with hedges and walls to ensure privacy from lower classes who were excluded from the sport
• middle-class established private tennis clubs as gardens were deemed unsuitable to play tennis
• first Wimbledon = 1877 and women could participate in 1884
• women couldn’t sweat as the game was seen as ‘not too vigorous’ and sweating was ‘unladylike’
What was lawn tennis like in the industrial/post-industrial era?
• middle-class invention (more affordable)
• played by middle class (in gardens)
• organised by middle class (private tennis clubs)
• use of specialist equipment (MC had sufficient finance to purchase own equipment)
• standardised rules
• played by men and women (first Wimbledon = 1877 and women = 1884 but sweating ‘unladylike’)
• public provision (eventually included LC in public parks)
What is the open era?
When professional tennis players could play alongside amateurs to earn money
How and when did women receive equal prize money to men at Wimbledon?
• Billie Jean King and the WTA fought for equal pay as she only received £750 compared to the men’s £2000 reward. In 2007 both received £700,000 and in 2015, both received £1,760,000.
• a number of women created own tour away from the men’s and in late 20th century, WTA developed own professional circuit where millions of pounds were being won
What was athletics like after it had become ‘rationalised’?
• wagering still common
• class divide still evident (UC + MC amateurs ran for fun and LC professionals ran for money)
• track and fields were both deemed to be an unacceptable activity for women as it was ‘unladylike’
What is the golden triangle?
The relationship between business, sport and the media
What is merchandising?
The practice in which the brand or image from the ‘product’ is used to sell another
Define commercialism
The process of attempting to gain money from an activity
List the characteristics of commercial sport
• professional, high quality
• sponsorship and business
• entertainment industry
• involves contracts
• athletes as commodities
• wide media coverage
Effects of commercialism on precessional performers
• paid for successful results
• can be pressured to perform when injured
• high income for participation and promoting products
• must specialise in a sport to compete
• entertainers who become household names
• lack of privacy, controlled by sponsor and become public commodities
List the effects of commercialism on sport
• breaks in play so that so sponsors can advertise
• rules and scoring systems changed to speed up play and prevent spectator boredom
• competition formats have changed
• increased tech via media = more personal experience
• sports played by women = less coverage affecting participation and funding
Define globalisation
The process whereby nations are increasingly being linked together and people are being more interdependent via improvements in communications and travel
Define socialisation
A lifelong process whereby members of a society learn its norms, values ideas and practices and roles in order to take their place in that society
What is primary socialisation?
Socialisation in the early years of childhood, which takes place within the immediate family. Key process = internalisation. Families teach children basic values and accepted behaviour patterns
What is secondary socialisation?
Socialisation that occurs in later stages of life (teenagers and adults) where other factors have more of an influence on the individual (e.g. school, and friends.)
Define gender socialisation
The act of learning to conform to culturally defined gender roles through socialisation. ‘Girls learn to be girls’ and ‘boys learn to be boys’ by different ‘agents of socialisation.’
Define social control
A concept that refers to the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, behaviour and appearance are regulated in social systems.
Define institution
An established organisation founded for a religious, educational professional or social purpose
How does social control affect women in sport?
• Mild forms of social control from peers or the media say what is deemed to be feminine i.e. they would choose to play badminton over rugby
• Social pressures could lead to a woman feeling guilty for leaving a child to play sport - especially when they are young
Define social change
An alteration in the social order of society
What is ‘This Girl Can?’
A campaign that aims to bring about social changes in the way women’s participation in sport is viewed
What is ‘Cricket for Change?’
A charity that sets up programmes aiming to impact the lives of disadvantaged children by promoting mutual respect, increasing aspiration, enhancing relationships within wider communities by providing free cricket coaching + competitive opportunities
Define inequality
The unfair situation where resources/opportunities are distributed unevenly within a society
List some causes of inequality
• lack of money
• lack of confidence
• lack of role models / coaches / leaders of sports
• myths / stereotypes about the capabilities of women,ethnic minorities and people with disabilities
What are social stratifications?
A type of social inequality where society is divided into different levels based on a social characteristic
Define social class
A term to define social inequalities
What is the social action theory
A way of viewing socialisation, emphasising social action; it accepts that sport is produced and developed at a particular time through relationships and social networks of people who share the same views.
What is the interactionist approach?
The study of how individuals behave within a society it stresses that people are what create society
What is the interactionist theory helpful for ?
Understanding how to:
• make sports more democratic and have less hierarchy
• change sports to match the perspectives and identities of those playing
Define prejudice
The formation of an unfavourable opinion on an individual, often based upon inadequate facts
Define discrimination
The unfair treatment of an individual or minority group; to make a distinction and act on a prejudice
Define stereotyping
A standardised image; making simple generalisations about all members of a group which then allows others to categorise and treat them accordingly
Define overt discrimination
Discrimination that is visible / obvious (e.g. verbal racial abuse of a player)
Define covert discrimination
Discrimination that is hidden / less obvious (e.g. non-selection for captain due to race)
What are the benefits to raising participation in physical activity?
• Crime
• Health (physical and mental)
• Employment
• Economic
• Social
What are the health benefits to raising participation?
• Lower body weight
• lower blood pressure/stress levels
• raised self-esteem
What are the crime benefits of raising participation?
• more positive use of free time
• lower crime stats
What are the economic benefits of raising participation?
• increased spending on healthy pursuits
• money money put into the economy via ‘leisure-spend’
What are the employment benefits of raising participation in exercise?
• increased productivity at work
• lower absenteeism
• less time off work as they are staying active
What are the barriers to participation in sport?
TIMES
• lack of Time
• lack of Income
• lack of Motivation
• lack of Education
• lack of Skill
What is the solution to lack of time?
• Add physical activity to daily routine e.g. cycle or walk to work /school
• If this is due to domestic duties, exercise with children
What is the solution to lack of income?
Select activities that require limited equipment
What is the solution to lack of motivation?
•Invite a friend to exercise with you on a regular basis
•Join exercise class
What is the solution to lack of education? (Poor PE experiences / lack of knowledge on benefits)
• exercise with family and friends who can show you the correct technique
• join group where physical activity is important- ask questions about benefits and about technique
What are the main groups of people in society that experience barriers to participate in sport?
• women
• people with disabilities
• ethnic minorities
Define integration
Where able-bodied and disabled people take part in the same activity at the same time e.g. London marathon
Define segreagation
Where people with disabilities participating separately among themselves e.g. in the Paralympic’s
List common barriers disabled people face that negatively impact their participation in physical activity
• lack of confidence
• relatively low income levels due to their possible in capability to work + expensive transport + memberships
• lack of access to facilities
• lack of organised programmes
• low levels of media coverage/less role models
• lack of specialist coaches / clubs / comps / equipment
• stereotypes about their capability to participate in sport / safety concerns
List solutions to the barriers that disabled people face
• providing opportunities/programmes for success e.g. paralympics
• increased investment
• providing transport to facilities + improve access i.e. ramps and lifts
• improved technology
• increased media coverage and promote role models
• training more specialist coaches + set up more clubs
• educating people on stereotypes
• designing more activities specialised to those who are disabled
• work with specialist organisations like Sport England and EFDS to support and coordinate development
Define racism
A set of beliefs / ideas based upon the assumption that races have distinct hereditary characteristics that give some races an intrinsic superiority over others- can lead to verbal or physical abuse
Define stacking
The disproportionate concentration of the ethnic minorities in certain positions in a sports team that tends to be based on stereotypes that they are more valuable for their physical abilities than their decision-making and communication qualities
Define channelling
Ethnic minorities may be pushed to play a certain sport and certain positions on a team based on assumptions about them
List the possible barriers that ethnic minorities have that negatively impact their participation in physical activity
• conflict with religious / cultural views
•discouragement from family and friends due to heavier importance place on academics
• fear racist abuse
• few role models, especially coaches
• fear of rejection + low self-esteem
• stereotyping / attempts of channelling away from others
• language barriers
List the possible solutions to the barriers that ethnic minorities experience
• training more ethnic minority coaches and sports leaders who can educate people on the stereotypes and act as an example to younger people
• ensuring there is single-sex provision, so all cultures and religions can be involved
• publicising and punishing severely for any case of racial abuse
• ensuring provision in all PE programmes is appropriate for all religions and cultures
• campaigns against racism e.g. Kick it Out (football)
What is the Rooney Rule?
Established in the USA in 2003, it is a rule that requires National Football teams to interview minority candidates for head coaching and senior football operations jobs
What are the possible barriers that contribute to less participation of women in sport?
TRIPS
• lack of Time
• lack of Role models
• lack of Income / costs
• bad experience from PE programmes
• lack of Sponsorship opportunities
What are the possible solutions to the barriers that women face every day?
