Social psychology Flashcards
Social construction of self
- Social comparison- Festinger. People evaluate themselves in relation to others
- Reference groups- categories of people to which you see yourself belonging and to which you habitually compare yourself
- Relative deprivation- the belief that, no matter how uch you are getting in terms of money, status, recognition, it is less that you deserve
Social perception and the role f schemias
Influence what we pay attention to and what we ignore. Tend to process information about the other person more quickly if it confirms our beliefs about that person’s gender or ethnic group
Influence what we remember, our judgement, can create self-fulfilling prophecies, leading people to act in ways that bring out in others behaviour that is consistent with first impressions
Attribution theory
Heider
explaining causes of people’s behaviour, including our own
either to internal or external causes
Harold Kelly attribution theory
To understand behaviour, need to know 3 things
- Consensus- if high degree of consesnus between others and self behaviour, attributed to internal cause
- Consistency- degree to which behaviour occurs repeatedly in a particular situation
- Distinctiveness- similar stimuli elicit the same behaviour. External attribution high
The primary (fundamental) attribution error
refers to a tendency to overattribute the behaviour of others to internal factors
it may generate overconfidence about impressions of other people
leads to underestimates of the extent to which another person’s behaviour is due
to external causes, and thus how much that person’s behaviour might vary across
situations
it explains why, despite the fact that situations often influence our behaviours
more than traits, most people believe that traits are the major cause of our
behaviours
The ultimate attribution error
positive actions performed by people from a different ethnic or social group are
attributed to external causes, while their negative actions are attributed to internal
causes
The self protective functions of social cognition
unrealistic optimism->people tend to believe that positive events are more likely
to happen to themselves, and vice versa
unique vulnerability-> people tend to judge other’s actions as being high risk and
believe
themselves to be at lower risk
self handicapping strategy-> protects self
esteem by providing a way for one’s
failings to be attributed to an external cause, not negative internal characteristics
The structure of attitudes
consist of 3 components:
1. cognitive (beliefs)
2. affective (feelings)
3. behavioural (actions)
•cognitive theories propose that attitudes consist of evaluations of an object that are
stored in memory
•this suggests that the likelihood of attitude
behaviour consistency depends
on:
•accessibility of evaluations in memory
•subjective norms
•perceived control over the behaviour
•prior direct experience with the attitude object
•how closely people monitor the behaviour of others
Forming attitudes
Classifical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Mere-exposure effect
Changing attitudes
Changing attitudes
•the effectiveness of persuasive messages in changing attitudes is influenced by:
1. the characteristics of the person who communicates it
2. its content -repetition increases the persuasiveness
3.the audience that receives it
•the elaboration likelihood model
is based on the premise that persuasive
messages can change people’s attitudes through one of two routes:
1. the peripheral route when it is activated, we devote little attention to the
central content of the persuasive message and tend to be affected by
peripheral persuasion cues
such as the confidence, attractiveness of the person delivering the method
2. the central route when activated the content of the message becomes
more important
Likelihood of attitude change
rapid speakers are more persuasive than slow deliberate speakers
• an optimum distance is required between the communicator and recipient
•more distraction leads to a higher chance of being persuaded
•there is an inverted U shaped relationship between the anxiety level of recipients
and the fear content of a message
Cognitive dissonance theory
Leon Festinger (1957)
• holds that inconsistency between cognitions about attitudes and cognitions about
behaviour creates discomfort that often results in tension reducing attitude change
• the power of cognitive dissonance to change attitudes may be greater in the
individualist cultures of Europe and North America where group rather than
individual values and goals are emphasized, behaving at odds with one’s personal beliefs may create less discomfort
motivating, explains behaviour markedly at variance with the initial attitude of an individual
high dissonance is likely when there is:
•awareness of personal responsibility for the conse quences of an action
•an expected unpleasant consequence of the behaviour for others
•low pressure to comply with an action
•high perceived choice between actions
•high arousal
cognitive dissonance can be reduced by: •justification of effort •changing attitudes •rationalizing the information creating the dissonance •counter attitudinal advocacy
ego-dystonic
Self-perception theory
Daryl Bem (1967)
•suggests that people sometimes
infer from their behaviour what their attitudes are,
if they are in a position where they are not sure
•seems to apply best when people have no prior attitude
Balance theory
Heider
each individual attempts to organise their attitudes, perceptions and beliefs so that theyr are in harmony with each other
Thurstone scale
• dichotomous scale indicating agreement/ disagreement with a statement • it is an equally appearing interval scale • disadvantages: • different response patterns may result in the same mean score • setup is unwieldy • ranking may be biased
Likert scale
5 point interval scale indicating level of agreement
advantages:
increased sensitivity
easily administered
disadvantages:
different response patterns may result in the same mean score
what is prejudice
prejudice which is a negative attitude, or a cluster of
negative beliefs, toward an individual based simply on his or her membership in
some group