Advanced psychology Flashcards
While measuring attitudes to abortion, the subjects are given a set
of statements carefully chosen by a panel of judges beforehand. Each
statement carries a pre-assigned value. The subjects are asked to indicate
whether they agree or not with each statement. Which of the following
methods is being used in this study?
A. Likert Scale
B. Osgood’s Semantic Differential Scale
C. Thurstone Scale
D. Sociogram
E. Scalogram
C. Various methods are used to measure the attitudes of a subject on a specifi c issue. The
method described in Question 1 is an example of the Thurstone scale. When constructing a
Thurstone scale, hundreds of statements are initially produced pertaining to a particular topic, for
example abortion. These statements are presented to a sample of people (similar to a panel of
judges) who are asked to score the statements on an 11-point scale. A set number of statements,
for example 10 on each extreme (positive and negative attitude), are chosen based on the
consistency of scores given by the judges. Each of these statements will carry a value that is the
average of 100 judgements on the 11-point scale. These 20 statements are clubbed together to
produce an attitude scale, which is administered to the subject. The subject will then indicate
what statements he agrees with. It is not often used because the method is too tedious. The
11 points (used to rate each statement) are assumed to be intervals and averages are used to
obtain the value scores. This is not entirely accurate as the 11-point scale is in fact ordinal. In the
Likert scale, graded ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’ measures are employed. It is statistically
reliable (ordinal data) and easy to construct. It is usually constructed as a fi ve- to seven-point
scale.
A boring task is administered to two groups of people. One group is
paid £20 and the other is paid £1 for undertaking the task. Which of
the following results is possible after completion of the task?
A. Only the £1 group will appreciate the usefulness of the task.
B. Only the £20 group will appreciate the usefulness of the task.
C. Both groups will equally appreciate the task.
D. Both groups will equally detest the task.
E. The outcome will depend on the length of the task
A. Contrary to popular belief, the group that is paid more will not appreciate the boring
task. As they obtained a good incentive, they will not develop a dissonance. They may lie about
its usefulness but in fact they will not change their belief about the boring nature of the task. In
contrast, the lowly paid group will experience a cognitive dissonance between the two facts—
‘This task is boring’ and ‘I am doing this task without much incentive’. Hence they will change their
initial attitude towards the task and, in fact, will start liking the task. This is called the one-dollar/
20-dollar experiment and explains processes that substantiate counter-attitudinal behaviours.
Measured attitudes often differ from observed behaviours. Which of the
following could improve the correlation between a measured attitude
and actual behaviour?
A. Repeated measurement of attitudes
B. Measuring attitude in a general context without hypothetical constraints
C. Measuring the single most predictive attitude for a given behaviour
D. Measuring attitudes with specifi ed target, context, and time elements
E. Postal survey of attitudes
D. In the fi eld of attitude research, the relative lack of correlation between expressed
attitude and actual behaviour is an important hurdle. Attitudes can be elicited with specifi c
assessment of:
1. The target of one’s attitude
2. The actual action expected when faced with the target
3. The specifi ed context in which such action is expected
4. The time when this action is expected.
With such specifi c assessment, the correlation between measured attitude and behaviour
improves considerably. Single instances of behaviours are not reliable indicators of attitudes.
Repeated observations of behaviours (not measurement of attitudes, as stated in Choice A)
may improve the validity. The notion that a specifi c behaviour is infl uenced by one predominant
attitude is too simple and reductionist. Various attitudes interact to produce behaviour. There is
no evidence to suggest that a postal survey of attitudes has better validity than other methods.
A politician is trying to persuade his working-class audience to vote in
favour of his space science policy. Which of the following will produce a
successful persuasion?
A. Being highly credible with respect to the policy
B. Appearing strikingly different from the audience
C. Providing an overview of both good and bad aspects of his policy
D. Inducing a high degree of fear regarding the consequences of non-acceptance
E. Introducing the topic by emphasizing that the policy has been made by a panel
unknown to the politician
A. The success of persuasive communication depends on many variables. These variables
can be grouped as those that depend on the source (communicator—the politician in this case),
the message itself, the audience, and the medium of communication. A communicator who is
perceived to be reliable, likeable, attractive, and an expert are positive features that will result in
effective persuasion. When the audience perceive a degree of similarity with the communicator,
the effectiveness of persuasion increases. Inducing moderate but not a high degree of fear can
help effective persuasion. When a message is presented to a well-educated and highly informed
audience who will hear both sides of a story before making a judgement, explaining both pros
and cons (two-sided messages) is more useful than just highlighting the advantages of a policy
(one-sided messages). Providing disclaimers, for example highlighting one’s distance from the
advocated message, is often counterproductive.
Which of the following statements is incorrect with respect to the role
of fear in changing one’s attitudes?
A. Absence of fear can inhibit attitude change
B. Extreme fear can inhibit attitude change
C. In the presence of precise instructions, fear facilitates attitude change
D. Feeling of vulnerability decreases attitude change
E. Fear and attitude change are related by an inverted U shaped curve
D. The relationship between fear and persuasion is an inverted U shape—too little or
too much fear will reduce the effectiveness of persuasion. This is similar to the Yerkes–Dodson
law which correlates arousal with performance of an activity. When one is too aroused,
performance is inhibited. At the same time, when someone is not aroused at all, performance is
again inhibited. Optimum arousal seems to be necessary for peak performances. This is clearly
evident in performing sexual activity. When a subject is made to feel vulnerable, this increases
one’s concerns and, as a result, increases one’s attention to a message. For example in order
to persuade adolescents to practice safer sex, the high prevalence of HIV is highlighted before
advising safe sexual practices.
An autistic child is successively reinforced for behaviours ranging
from making eye contact, attending to therapist’s speech, and imitating
speech sounds until sentences are uttered in normal social contexts.
This technique is called
A. Shaping
B. Chaining
C. Flooding
D. Aversion therapy
E. Token economy
A. Shaping refers to an operant conditioning technique that has been used in autistic
children. It consists of successive reinforcement of behaviours that approximate to the fi nal
desired behaviour. It is different from chaining in that chaining involves eliciting a complex
behaviour by reinforcing the comparatively simpler components of the behavioural chain.
Flooding is a behavioural technique used in exposure therapy. In this technique, sudden exposure
to highly threatening stimulus (from a hierarchical list of various anxiety provoking situations)
is attempted. It is often unacceptable to many patients and is not popular. Aversion therapy
is not used in present-day behavioural treatment. It refers to a conditioning technique where
negative reinforcement is used to bring about a desired behaviour or to stop an unwanted
behaviour. It is not very effective as any positive outcome tends to be temporary. Token economy
is a contingency technique where immediately available secondary reinforcers (e.g. coupons,
vouchers, tokens) are used to reward a desirable behaviour. Later, primary reinforcers can
be obtained in exchange for secondary reinforcers. A wide variety of behaviours can be thus
reinforced even in large group settings
A smoker is made aware of numerous health problems that could
occur due to smoking. If the smoker attempts to reduce the dissonance
between his smoking behaviour and health beliefs, which of the following
is least likely to happen?
A. Change in smoking behaviour
B. Removing the dissonant health belief
C. Minimizing the importance of one’s health
D. Adding a new belief, for example ‘fi lter cigarettes are safe’
E. Denying the strength of evidence for smoking-related harm
A. This is an example of cognitive dissonance or, more precisely, attitude behaviour
discrepancy. Cognitive dissonance is defi ned as a psychological tension that arises when
inconsistent cognitions are held simultaneously. A similar tension can also occur when there is
a discrepancy between one’s attitude and behaviour. When one is faced with such dissonance,
a change in behaviour happens very rarely. Changing one’s behaviour requires more motivation,
effort, and sustained energy. Instead one of the following three happens more often:
1. Removal or denial of the dissonant cognition (‘There is no evidence that smoking is harmful’)
2. Trivializing the dissonant cognition (‘I do not smoke that much’ or ‘Pleasure is more important
than health’)
3. Adding a new consonant cognition to counter balance the dissonance (‘Smoking helps to
reduce my tension’ or ‘Not everyone who smokes will die early’).
Inducing cognitive dissonance is an important therapeutic approach in which of the following treatments? A. Systematic desensitization B. Token therapy C. Interpersonal therapy D. Motivation enhancement therapy E. Brief psychodynamic therapy
D. The concept of cognitive dissonance is therapeutically employed in motivation
enhancement therapy. When treating harmful users of alcohol, the evidence for harm caused by
alcohol is highlighted along with refl ecting on one’s continuous drinking behaviour. This induces a
cognitive dissonance which will drive towards an action.
Which of the following terms describes an evaluative rather than
a descriptive stand one holds about oneself?
A. Self-image
B. Bodily self
C. Self-esteem
D. Self-consciousness
E. Ideal self
C. Self-esteem refers to an evaluative stand one holds about oneself. In self-psychology an
array of terms are used, somewhat confusing the concepts.
Self-consciousness: awareness of distinct self compared to other objects in the
environment. Only humans are thought to possess full self-consciousness.
Self-image: this refers to an answer one might give for the question ‘who are you?’ It includes
one’s description of social roles (social self), personality traits, and physical characters
(bodily self). We do not feel odd swallowing our own saliva as it is a part of our self-image.
Imagine being asked to swallow someone else’s saliva!
Self-esteem: this refers to a personal judgement of worthiness expressed in the attitudes one
holds towards oneself.
Ideal-self: this represents ‘what we would like ourselves to be’. One’s self-esteem depends on the
discrepancy between one’s ideal self and self-image.
Behavioural couples therapy is a treatment approach used in which of the following conditions? A. Alcohol use disorder B. Premature ejaculation C. Sex offender therapy D. Delusional jealousy E. Dependent personality disorder
A. Behavioural couples therapy is a specifi c intervention for alcoholism. It is derived from a
general behavioural conceptualization of substance abuse, which assumes that family interactions
reinforce alcohol-seeking behaviour. It has strong empirical and randomized controlled trial-based
evidence for its effectiveness. It encourages family members to reward abstinence. Soon after the
substance user seeks help, the patient and their partner are seen together in therapy for 15 to 20
out-patient couple sessions over 5 to 6 months. The therapist arranges a daily ‘sobriety contract’
in which the patient states his or her intent not to drink or use drugs that day (traditionally, one
day at a time), and the spouse expresses support for the patient’s efforts to stay abstinent. Stop–
start or squeeze–pause techniques (Masters and Johnson) are used for premature ejaculation.
Sex offender treatment programmes in the UK largely use Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
(CBT)-based treatment approaches.
Which of the following factors plays a role in the development
of self-concept?
A. Reaction of others towards oneself
B. Social comparison one makes with others
C. Social roles one plays in everyday life
D. Identifi cation with a social group
E. All of the above
E. All of the given factors in the question play equally important roles in developing one’s
self-concept. Parents react differently to their children according to their birth order. The eldest
born is given more responsibility. This leads to a higher self-esteem in most fi rst-born children.
In a social environment, individuals make constant comparisons with other persons surrounding
them in different domains. One’s self-concept depends very much on the outcome of such
comparisons. As one grows older, one takes up a variety of social roles. The role we play in
society is crucial in the development of self-concept. Individuals often identify themselves as a
part of a group for example ‘I am a football fan’. This social identity plays an important role in
self-development.
In a prosperous country with good tolerance, a famine strikes all
of a sudden. This is followed by a surge of intolerance between two
racial tribes wherein the minorities are discriminated against. Which
of the following theories can explain this prejudice?
A. Relative deprivation theory
B. Group membership theory
C. Social identity theory
D. Authoritarian personality theory
E. Cognitive dissonance theory
A. Various theories have been put forward to explain prejudice and discrimination.
According to relative deprivation theory, when sudden discrepancies develop between the needs
of a society and resources possessed by the society, acute relative deprivation results. This in
turn leads to aggressive and discriminatory behaviour against a specifi c target, even though the
targeted group was in no way responsible for the deprivation. Group membership theory states
that mere perception of the existence of another group is suffi cient to trigger discriminatory
behaviour. Prejudice is common in individuals who suffer excessive disciplinary upbringing and
later develop authoritarian personality. However, this authoritarian personality theory fails to
explain sudden surges in social prejudice. According to social identity theory an individual strives
to achieve a positive self-esteem by improving his social identity. Positive preference to one’s
own group (in group) can improve this image. Prejudice and discrimination can develop from this
biased attitude. Cognitive dissonance theory is not a theory of prejudice.
The term ‘nomothetic’ in personality theories refers to which of
the following concepts?
A. Personality is unique for each individual
B. Individuals have overlapping personality traits
C. Ambiguity can induce personality variables to come to the surface
D. Personality is infl uenced by pathological processes
E. Personality is not measurable but can only be described
B. Personality theories can be broadly divided into nomothetic theories and idiographic
theories. Nomothetic theories take the view that there are common underlying traits in people’s
personality; we only differ in the degree (and intensity) to which we have these various traits.
Cattell and Eysenck are important proponents of this approach. Idiographic theories take the
view that every individual is unique and we cannot place people into boxes of similar shape and
size. Psychoanalytic theories of personality and humanistic theories are examples of idiographic
approach. According to idiographic theories, personality is better described than measured.
Personality is thought to be pathoplastic, as it modifi es psychiatric disease expression and itself
becomes modifi ed by the infl uence of a disease process. Ambiguous stimuli elicit responses that
are coloured by one’s personality and style of thinking. Projective tests, such as Rorschach’s ink
blot test, utilize this property
Which of the following distinctions between prejudice and discrimination
holds true?
A. Prejudice is a behaviour while discrimination is an attitude
B. Discrimination and prejudice are both attitudes
C. Prejudice is an attitude while discrimination is a behaviour
D. Discrimination has both cognitive and behavioural components
E. Prejudice can only be negative while discrimination could be positive or negative
C. Prejudice is best viewed as an attitude whose components include a cognitive part
(stereotypes), affective part (hostility and hatred), and behavioural part. The behaviour related
to prejudice can vary from mild to a severe extreme. Allport described (i) antilocution,
(ii) avoidance of contact, (iii) discrimination, (iv) physical attack, and (v) extermination, as the
behaviours associated with prejudice. One can have positive, neutral, or negative prejudice too.
Of note is the term racism, which refers to an economical and political ideology while racial
prejudice refers to individual attitudes
Which of the following is the average age by which the concept of theory of mind becomes established in children? A. 2 to 2 1/2 years B. 1 to 1 1/2 years C. 3 1/2 to 4 years D. 6 to 7 years E. 8 to 9 years
C. Theory of mind develops around the age of 3 1/2 to 4 years old in most humans. Initially
this is confi ned to the rudimentary concept of private thinking—understanding that one’s
thoughts are not visible to others. This is followed by understanding the existence of similar
mental processes in other individuals—termed theory of mind. False belief task or Sally Anne
task is used to test the theory of mind.
Which of the following is often the fi rst social category learnt by a developing child? A. Concept of individualism B. Gender concept C. Race concept D. Religion concept E. Age concept
E. Age is often the fi rst social category learnt by a child. It is thought to be developed
even before a child develops full language abilities. Even the concept of numbers comes later.
Exemplifying this, it is noted that age-related mistakes, such as calling an adult a baby, almost
never occur in children. Gender identity develops around 3 years of age
The average age by which most humans develop self-recognition is A. 1 to 3 months B. 16 to 18 months C. 18 to 20 months D. 12 to 14 months E. 4 to 6 months
C. Self-recognition could be demonstrated in a growing infant by using a mirror. When a
red dot is unknowingly placed on the face of a child, the child starts touching its face to explore
the dot when a mirror is shown. This ‘touching the dot’ phenomenon does not occur less than
15 months of age; 5 to 25% of infants touch the dot by 18 months, while nearly 75% touch the
dot by age 20 months. It is thus concluded that self-recognition rapidly develops between 18 and
20 months. Object permanence is thought to be a prerequisite to develop self-recognition so it is
not possible before 9 months of age.
‘Touching the dot’ is a popular psychological experiment to demonstrate which of the following concepts? A. Self-esteem B. Gestalt theory of perception C. Self-recognition D. Visual perception E. Depth perception
C. Gallup conducted the famous ‘touching the dot’ experiments to demonstrate selfrecognition.
It is noted that only higher primates and humans older than 20 months successfully
demonstrate ‘touching the dot’. Mirror recognition by primates may be a refl ection of behavioural
recognition, that is ‘the one in the mirror is the same as me’ rather than self-recognition, that is
‘the one in the mirror is me’.
After her failure in an examination in spite of hard work, a candidate starts regarding the failure as a stepping stone to success. Which of the following explains such an attitude? A. Effort justifi cation dissonance B. Denial mechanism C. Passive–aggressive personality D. Narcissistic personality E. Learned helplessness
A. When we spend much effort in attaining a goal but do not attain the goal eventually, we
are faced with a dissonance. The two facts ‘I worked really hard’ and ‘I failed my exam’ cannot
coexist logically. Hence one starts perceiving that the result is not so bad and some may even
consider that the result was indeed good for one’s spiritual progress! This ‘suffering-leadsto-
liking’ effect is also called effort justifi cation dissonance. There is no narcissism or passive
aggression in such behaviour. This is not a denial as the subject still accepts the failure but
interprets it differently
Which of the following methods of measuring attitudes uses bipolar adjectives? A. Likert scale B. Osgood’s Semantic Differential scale C. Thurstone Scale D. Sociogram E. Scalogram
B. Osgood’s Semantic Differential Scale is used to measure verbally expressed attitudes. It
allows different attitudes about a particular topic to be measured on the same scale. It includes
various factors constituting an attitude; for example while expressing one’s attitudes regarding
a politician one can rate him using an evaluative component (good ↔ bad), activity component
(active ↔ inactive), and potency component (powerful ↔ weak), etc. Between the extremes of
these bipolar adjectives a seven-point scale is placed and the subject is asked to indicate a score
for each factor. Osgood’s semantic differential assumes that every concept can be represented
in a hypothetical semantic space with two extremes. Sociometry is a method of measuring
interpersonal attitudes and it involves constructing a sociogram—for example a representation
of ‘who likes whom’ in a family. Guttman’s scalogram consists of various statements arranged
in a hierarchy. Choosing a statement invariably implies that all statements that come below the
chosen statement are accepted. Scalogram is also utilized in measurement of attitudes
While undergoing couples therapy, each partner agrees a way of rewarding
the other when the desired behaviour is carried out. This is called
A. Sculpting
B. Role reversal
C. Socratic questioning
D. Guided discovery
E. Reciprocity negotiation
E. Reciprocity negotiation, role reversal, and sculpting are terms associated with couples
therapy. In reciprocity negotiation, mutual rewarding of desirable behaviours through expression
of affection or approval is carried out. This is often a primary component in couples therapy.
In role reversal, mutual exchange of viewpoints takes place in a role-play setting. This helps in
understanding each other’s differing points of view of an issue. This technique is also used in
psychodrama and group therapy. Sculpting refers to silent enactment of positions that express an
aspect of relationship without verbal exchanges. Socratic questioning and guided discovery are
terms associated with cognitive therapy.
The id impulses are counterbalanced by defence mechanisms mediated by ego. When id retaliates against the moral imposed by superego, which of the following results? A. Repressions B. Obsessions C. Suppression D. Repetition compulsion E. Dissociation
D. In simple terms, repetition compulsion refers to a person’s tendency to repeat past
traumatic behaviours. In psychoanalysis, ego defences are considered to rein over id impulses.
When this defence is superseded, confl ict arises leading to anxiety and various defences invoked
in response. The ego mediates between timely release of id impulses and morals imposed by
the superego. At times, the direct control of superego is thwarted and id impulses repetitively
present, that is repetition compulsion which is a form of acting out
A 45-year-old depressed man becomes clingy and tearful when his wife visits him. He adapts a fetal posture and sleeps on her lap. Which of the following is being exhibited? A. Repression B. Sadism C. Retardation D. Regression E. Degeneration
D. Regression refers to moving back on one’s developmental behaviours at times of crisis, as
exemplifi ed in the question. Repression is the shifting of conscious confl icts to the unconscious,
leading to reduced anxiety. Sadism is purposeful infl icting of pain on oneself.
According to psychoanalytic theories of anxiety which of the following
anxieties is the most primitive in development?
A. Disintegration anxiety
B. Superego anxiety
C. Castration anxiety
D. Separation anxiety
E. Stranger anxiety
A. Disintegration anxiety precedes other types of anxiety discussed in the question.
According to Klein, soon after birth and thereafter the child experiences an intense fear of
fragmentation, called disintegration anxiety by later theorists. This is sequentially followed by
persecutory fear (against the mother) and, later, separation anxiety. Castration anxiety is seen
in the oedipal stage. Superego anxiety is the anxiety arising out of choices one has to make
between instinctual drives and social morals. This is a mature type of anxiety that develops late in
a child.
Which of the following applies to Jungian modifi cation of psychoanalysis?
A. Active imagination is encouraged
B. Thanatos or death instinct forms the dominant concept
C. Uninterrupted, lifelong psychotherapy is encouraged
D. Jungian therapy is based on object relations theory
E. Play therapy is encouraged
- A. Jung was widely expected to succeed Freud as the leader of psychoanalysis, but Jung
distanced himself from Freud on the account of Freud’s ideas on infantile sexuality. Jung founded
analytical psychology and expanded on ‘unconscious’ to include ‘collective unconscious’. Jungian
psychotherapy is a classical psychoanalytic therapy in the broad sense but Jung introduced
active imagination or fantasy as a mode of therapy. He emphasized having holidays from analysis
to refl ect and think. He encouraged art therapy too. He stressed the concept of indiv
A psychiatric trainee is reprimanded for using social network websites
with explicit sexual content while at work. He explains that such breaks
are very important while doing a stressful job and preventing web access
at work will only make him less effi cient at work. Which of the following
defence mechanisms is he using?
A. Intellectualization
B. Reaction formation
C. Projection
D. Rationalization
E. Sublimation
D. This example refers to rationalization. A rationalizing individual offers rational
explanations in an attempt to justify unacceptable attitudes or beliefs or actions.
Intellectualization is closely allied to rationalization, but it is very important to note that in
rationalization, the motives are usually primal and instinctually determined, for example sex,
aggression, greed, etc. Intellectualization is an immature defence. It refers to excessively using
intellectual processes to avoid experiencing painful emotions (not necessarily libidinal). An
intellectualizing individual places undue emphasis on inanimate objects or parts to avoid dealing
with emotion-provoking, ‘living’ elements. He may have more focus on outside reality to avoid
inner feelings; in the process he may pay more attention to irrelevant details.
The term cathexis in psychoanalysis refers to which of the following?
A. The junction between two neurones
B. Re-enactment of childhood confl icts during a therapy session
C. Narrating negative experiences in life without inhibition
D. The instinctual energy stored in neurones
E. A defence mechanism thought to act during sleep
D. Cathexis refers to the supposed libidinal energy stored in neurones and kept under
control by the monitoring action of ego. Release of cathexis presents as impulses and defence
mechanisms serve to alter the expression. Libidinal energy may be constructive sexual energy or
destructive aggression. The junction between two neurones is called a synapse. Re-enactment of
childhood confl icts during a therapy session refers to transference. Dream work includes various
processes and revisions and not defence mechanisms as such.
A patient attending psychotherapy sessions for pervasive anxiety
and depression shows reduced interest in the therapy gradually,
after the fi rst eight sessions. When questioned she replies that she
continues to attend only to achieve the satisfaction of ‘being looked-after’.
Which of the following processes explains the above?
A. Counter transference
B. Transference neurosis
C. Transference regression
D. Aggression turned outwards
E. Narcissistic transference
B. Transference neurosis involves the re-creation of the patient’s confl icts enacted
within the psychoanalysis session. This enactment mirrors aspects of the infantile neurosis.
The transference neurosis usually develops in the middle phase of analysis, when the patient,
after initial engagement, stops displaying consistent motivation but engages in therapy to attain
emotional satisfaction of re-enacting her infantile confl ict. Emergence of the transference neurosis
is usually a slow and gradual process but when a patient has a propensity for transference
regression (e.g. emotionally unstable or histrionic) this can occur quiet early in the therapy
