Contributions of the psychosocial sciences to human development Flashcards
Sociology
study of collective human
behavior, including the developmental structure and interactions of their social
institutions.
anthropology
study of humans in relation to distribution,
origin, classification, and relationship of races, physical characteristics,
environmental relations, social relations, and culture.
ethology
study of
animal behavior and is often applied to human behavior.
Learning theory developers
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
1849-1936), John B. Watson (1878-1958), and B.F. Skinner (1904-1990
Attachment theory
John Bowlby (1907-1990) who pointed out that the mother-child attachment was an essential medium of human interaction that had important consequences for development and personality functioning
Rene Spitz
Rene Spitz (1887-1974) described
anaclitic depression, or hosptialism, in which normal children who were
separated for long periods from adequate caregiving failed to thrive and,
therefore, became depressed and nonresponsive
The drift hypothesis states that
A. one’s experience as a member of a particular class leads to the development
of individual differences in coping capacity
B. women are disadvantaged relative to men because their adult roles expose them
to chronic stress
C. a mental illness results in a decline in one’s social clan
D. differential exposure to stress explains group differences in mental illness
E. ethnic minorities and immigrants appear to have more effective coping skills
over nonminorities
The answer is C
The drift hypothesis states that a mental illness results in a decline in one’s
social clan. Most of the evidence for the drift hypothesis comes from studies of
major mental illnesses, primarily schizophrenia. Those studies show that the
early onset of a disorder can reduce one’s chances of socioeconomic achievement,
a fact that seems true for people who become ill before establishing a career.
A large part of sociological research on psychopathology has focused on
structural correlates of psychiatric illness such as social class, race,
ethnicity, sex, and age. The associations between these variables and the
prevalence of psychiatric disorders are substantial. The most obvious hypothesis
to test in examining such associations is that differential exposure to stress
explains group differences in mental illness. It is now clear that this
hypothesis can be rejected. Although it is true that people in comparatively
disadvantaged positions in society are exposed to more stress than their
advantaged counterparts, differential exposure cannot totally explain their
higher rates of anxiety, depression, and nonspecific distress in general
population samples.
Studies have shown that a class-linked vulnerability to stress accounts for the
major part of the association between social class and depression and between
social class and nonspecific distress. Another explanation is that one’s
experience as a member of a particular class leads to the development of more
effective coping skills.
A related area of research concerns racial and ethnical differences in mental
illness. One intriguing and still only partially understood pattern is that
ethnic minority immigrants appear to have better coping skills over nonminorities
that disappear among second-generation and later-generation minorities.
Another area of sociological interest concerns gender differences in anxiety and
mood disorders. There are several lines of research to pursue gender differences
in nonspecific distress and affective disorders. The dominant perspective in
sociology since the 1980s holds that women are disadvantaged relative to men
because their adult roles expose them to more chronic stress.
A young woman presents with a history of agoraphobia since adolescence. Her
agoraphobia progressed over the subsequent decade until she was essentially
housebound. She could only leave home accompanied by her mother or husband and,
even in that circumstance, with considerable anxiety. Leaving home alone had, in
the past, often precipitated a panic attack. She had been treated with various
medications and with psychotherapy without significant improvement. She was
admitted to a clinical research center as part of a study examining the use of
social reinforcement in various phobic conditions. A therapist with whom she had
developed a good relationship delivered reinforcement in the form of praise
contingent on progress. In the baseline period, the patient was encouraged to
walk as far away from the clinical research unit as she could. Reinforcement for
staying outside the unit resulted in only a small increase in distance walked
away from the unit. In the next phase, praise for progress was given on a
shaping schedule. For example, if the patient had been reinforced at a criterion
of 100-yards distance on one trial and walked 150 yards on the next trial, the
criterion would become 125 yards. She would be praised on the next trial only if
she walked 125 yards or more. In this phase, the distance walked began to increase. When reinforcement was stopped, distance walked increased dramatically
and then decreased. Finally, when reinforcement was reintroduced, the patient
was able to walk long distances away from the unit. This was then generalized to
the patient’s home environment.
The therapy used in the above case is an example of
A. Classic Conditioning
B. Operant Conditioning
C. Social Learning
D. Cognitive Learning
E. None of the above
The answer is B
The therapy used in the above case is an example of operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning, developed by B. F. Skinner, is a form of learning in which
behavior frequency is altered through the application of positive and negative
consequences. The therapist uses positive reinforcement (praise) to help the
patient overcome her agoraphobia. Positive reinforcement is the process by which
certain consequences of a response increase the probability that the response
will recur. Classic conditioning is a form of learning in which a neutral
stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus when presented with an unconditioned
stimulus. Unlike operant conditioning, where learning occurs as a consequence of
action, in classic conditioning, the examiner reinforces behavior. Ivan
Petrovich Pavlov developed classic conditioning through his famous experiment
conditioning a dog to salivate in response to a ringing bell.
Social learning theory relies on role modeling, identification, and human
interactions. A person can learn by imitating behavior of another person, but
personal factors are involved. When a person dislikes the role model, imitative
behavior is unlikely. Albert Bandura is a major proponent of the social learning
school. According to Bandura, behavior results from the interplay between
cognitive and environmental factors, a concept known as reciprocal determinism.
Cognitive learning theories focus on the role of understanding: Cognition
implies understanding the connection between cause and effect, between action
and the consequences of action.
American psychologist Edward L. Thorndike described A. drive reduction theory B. behaviorism C. trial-and-error learning D. respondent behavior E. operant behavior
C. Operant conditioning is related to trial-and-error learning, as described by the
American psychologist Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949). In trial-and-error
learning, a person or animal attempts to solve a problem by trying different
actions until one proves successful. A freely moving organism behaves in a way
that is instrumental in producing a reward. For example, a cat in the Thorndike
puzzle box must learn to lift a latch to escape from the box. For this reason,
operant conditioning is sometimes called instrumental conditioning. Thorndike’s
law of effect states that certain responses are reinforced by reward, and the
organism learns from these experiences One of the first theorists to explore the neuropsychological aspect of learning
was Clark L. Hull (1884-1952), who developed a drive reduction theory of central nervous system reduce the level of a drive (e.g., obtaining food reduces
hunger). An external stimulus stimulates an efferent system and elicits a motor
impulse. The critical connection is between the stimulus and the motor response,
which is a neurophysiological reaction that leads to what Hull called a habit.
American psychologist John B. Watson (1878-1958), the father of behaviorism,
used Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning to explain certain
aspects of human behavior. In 1920, Watson described producing a phobia in an
11-month-old boy called Little Albert. At the same time that the boy was shown a
white rat that he initially did not fear, he was exposed to a loud, frightening
noise. After such pairings, Albert became fearful of the white rat, even when he
heard no loud noise. Many theorists believe that this process accounts for the
development of childhood phobias, which are considered learned responses based
on classic conditioning.
B.F. Skinner described two types of behavior: respondent behavior, which results
from known stimuli (e.g., the knee jerk reflex to patellar stimulation or the
papillary constriction to light), and operant behavior, which is independent of
a stimulus (e.g., the random movements of an infant).
Premack’s principle states that
A. people will attribute other people’s behavior to stabilize their own
personality traits
B. high-frequency behaviors can be used to reinforce low-frequency behavior
C. a person can learn by imitating the behavior of another person
D. the more people feel capable of controlling a threatening event, the less
anxious they will be
E. people will attribute their own behavior to situational causes
The answer is B
A concept developed by David Premack states that a behavior engaged in with high
frequency can be used to reinforce a low-frequency behavior. In one experiment,
Premack observed that children spent more time playing with a pinball machine
than eating candy when both were freely available. When he made playing with the
pinball machine contingent on eating a certain amount of candy, the children
increased the amount of candy they ate. In a therapeutic application of this
principle, patients with schizophrenia were observed to spend more time in a
rehabilitation center sitting down doing nothing than they did working at a
simple task. When being able to sit down for 5 minutes was made contingent on a
certain amount of work, the work output was considerably increased, as was the
skill acquisition. This principle is also known as Grandma’s rule ("If you eat
your spinach, you can have dessert").
The social learning theory relies on role modeling, identification, and human
interactions. This theory states that a person can learn by imitating the
behavior of another person, but personal factors are involved.
The attribution theory is a cognitive approach concerned with how a person
perceives the causes of behavior. According to the attribution theory, people
are likely to attribute their own behavior to situational causes but are likely
to attribute other people’s behavior to their own stable internal personality
traits.
The self-efficacy theory predicts that the more people feel capable of
predicting and controlling threatening events, the less vulnerable they are to
anxiety and stress disorders in response to traumatic experiences.
The catharsis hypothesis is the belief that
A. participation in activities such as kickboxing can reduce aggressive behavior
B. aggression may be due to a lack of basic social skills
C. punishment can be an effective deterrent to overt aggression
D. exposure to signs of pain or discomfort on the victim’s part inhibits further
aggression
E. humorous materials can often reduce anger
The catharsis hypothesis is the belief that participation in activities, such as
running or kickboxing, allows people to vent their anger and hostility and,
therefore, reduces aggressive behavior. Some people, however, may become more
aggressive as a result of the expressive behaviors. Catharsis, therefore, may
not be effective for long-term reduction of aggression.
Punishment is sometimes an effective deterrent to overt aggression. Research
findings indicate that the frequency or intensity of aggressive behavior can be
reduced by even mild forms of punishment, such as social disapproval. However,
punishment does not always, or even usually, produce such effects. The
recipients of punishment often interpret it as an attack against them. To that
extent, aggressors may respond even more aggressively. Strong punishment is more
likely to provoke desires for revenge or retribution than to instill lasting
restraints against violence. For these reasons, certain punishments may backfire
and actually encourage, rather than inhibit, the dangerous actions they are
designed to prevent.
A major reason why many people become involved in repeated aggressive encounters
is their lack of basic social skills. These people do not know how to communicate
effectively and thus adopt an abrasive style of self-expression. Their social
deficits seem to ensure that they experience repeated frustration and frequently
anger those with whom they have direct contact. A technique for reducing the
frequency of such behavior involves providing these people with the social
skills that they lack. The results are encouraging and indicate that training in
appropriate social skills can offer a promising approach to the reduction of
human violence.
When aggressors attack other people in face-to-face confrontations, the
aggressors may block out, ignore, or deny signs of pain and suffering on the
part of their victims. In several experiments, exposure to signs of pain and
discomfort on the victim’s part has inhibited further aggression. If aggressors
are exposed to such feedback, they may feel empathy and subsequently reduce
further aggression.
Informal observation indicates that anger can often be reduced through exposure
to humorous material. Several types of humor, presented in various formats, can
induce reactions or emotions incompatible with aggression among the persons who
observe the humor.
Attribution theory states that
A. behavior results from the interplay between cognitive and environmental
factors
B. persons are likely to attribute their own behavior to situational causes
C. a behavior engaged in with high frequency can be used to reinforce a
low-frequency behavior
D. an organism changes its behavior to avoid a painful stimulus
E. an animal learns a response to get out of a place where it does not want to
be
B. According to attribution theory, persons are likely to attribute their own
behavior to situational causes but are likely to attribute others’ behaviors to
stable internal personality traits.
In psychiatry, attribution theory may help explain why some persons attribute a
change in behavior to an external event (situation) or to a change in internal
state (disposition or ability).
Albert Bandura is a major proponent of the social learning school. According to
Bandura, behavior results from the interplay between cognitive and environmental
factors, a concept known as reciprocal determinism. People learn by observing
others, intentionally or accidentally. This process is described as modeling or
learning through imitation. A person’s choice of model is influenced by a
variety of factors such as age, sex, status, and similarity.
The Premack’s principle is a concept developed by David Premack that states that
a behavior engaged in with high frequency can be used to reinforce a low-frequency
behavior. In one experiment, Premack observed that children spent more time
playing with a pinball machine than eating candy when both were freely
available. When he made playing with the pinball machine contingent on eating a
certain amount of candy, the children increased the amount of candy they ate.
In adverse control or conditioning, an organism changes its behavior to avoid a
painful, noxious, or aversive stimulus. Electric shocks are common aversive
stimuli used in laboratory experiments. Any behavior that avoids an aversive
stimulus is reinforced as a result.
Negative reinforcement is related to two types of learning, escape learning and
avoidance learning. In escape learning, an animal learns a response to get out
of a place where it does not want to be (e.g., an animal jumps off an electric
grid whenever the grid is charged). Avoidance learning requires an additional
response. The rat on the grid learns to avoid a shock if it quickly pushes a
lever when a light signal goes on.
Which of the following chromosomal abnormalities has been implicated as having an influence on aggressive behavior? A. 45-XO B. 48-XXXY C. 47-XXY D. 47-XYY E. 47-XXX View Answer
The answer is D
Behavior research involving the influence of chromosomes on aggressive behavior
has concentrated primarily on abnormalities in X and Y chromosomes, particularly
the 47-XYY syndrome. Early studies indicate that people with the syndrome could
be characterized as tall, with below-average intelligence, and likely to be
apprehended and in prison for engaging in criminal behavior. Subsequent studies
indicated, however, that, at most, the XYY syndrome contributes to aggressive
behavior in only a small percentage of cases. Studies of the androgen and
gonadotropin characteristics of persons with XYY syndrome have been inconclusive.
However, none of the other listed chromosomal abnormalities have been associated
with increases in aggressive behavior.
Which of the following statistical procedures is used to evaluate the frequency of events in a population? A. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) B. T-test C. Chi-squared test D. Discriminant analysis E. Z-score
The chi-square test is used to evaluate the relative frequency or proportion of
events in a population that falls into well-defined categories. Research on
whether parents who were abused as children are more likely to abuse their
children could be tested using the chi-square test of association. A t-test is a
statistical procedure designed to compare the means of two sets of observations.
Analysis of variance, or ANOVA, is a set of statistical procedures designed to
compare the means of three or more groups of observations. Discriminant analysis
is a multivariate method for finding the relation between a single discrete
outcome and a linear combination of two or more predictors. The z-score is the
deviation of a score from its group mean expressed in standard deviations.
Attachment theory states that
A. infants are generally polytropic in their attachments
B. attachment disorders may lead to a failure to thrive
C. attachment occurs instantaneously between the mother and the child
D. attachment is synonymous with bonding
E. separation anxiety is most common when an infant is 5 months old
Attachment disorders are characterized by biopsychosocial pathology that results
from maternal deprivation, a lack of care by, and interaction with, the infant’s
mother or caretaker. Psychosocial dwarfism, separation anxiety disorder,
avoidant personality disorder, depressive disorders, delinquency, learning
disorders, borderline intelligence, and failure to thrive have been traced to
negative attachment experiences. Failure to thrive results in the infant being
unable to maintain viability outside a hospital setting. When maternal care is
deficient because the mother is mentally ill, because the child is institutionalized
for a long time, or because the primary object of attachment dies, the child
suffers emotional damage
John Bowlby formulated a theory that states normal attachment is crucial to
healthy development. According to Bowlby, attachment occurs when the infant has
a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with its mother, and both mother
and infant find satisfaction and enjoyment. Infants are generally monotropic,
not polytropic, in their attachments, but multiple attachments may also occur
(i.e., attachment may be directed toward the father or a surrogate). Attachment
does not occur instantaneously between the mother and the child; it is a
gradually developing phenomenon. Attachment results in one person’s wanting to
be with a preferred person who is perceived as stronger, wiser, and able to
reduce anxiety or distress. Attachment produces a feeling of security in the
infant. It is a process that is facilitated by interaction between the mother
and the infant. The amount of time together is less important than the quality
of activity between the two.Attachment is not synonymous with bonding; they are different phenomena. Bonding
concerns the mother’s feelings for her infant. It differs from attachment in
that a mother does not normally rely on her infant as a source of security, a
requirement of attachment behavior. A great deal of research on the bonding of a
mother to her infant reveals that it occurs when they have skin-to-skin contact
or other types of contact, such as voice and eye contact.
Separation from the attachment may or may not produce intense anxiety, depending
on the child’s developmental level and the current phase of attachment.
Separation anxiety is expressed as tearfulness or irritability in a child who is
isolated or separated from its mother or caretaker. Separation anxiety is most
common when an infant is 10 to 18 months of age (not 5 months), and it
disappears generally by the end of the third year. Table 3.1 delineates aspects
of normal attachment at different ages.
Table 3.1 Normal Attachment
Birth to 30 days” “” “” “Reflexes at birth” “” “” “” “” “” “Rooting” “” “” “” “”
“” “Head turning” “” “” “” “” “” “Sucking” “” “” “” “” “” “Swallowing” “” “” “”
“” “” “Hand-mouth” “” “” “” “” “” “Grasp” “” “” “” “” “” “Digital extension” “”
“” “” “” “” “Crying-signal for particular kind of distress” “” “” “” “” “”
“Responsiveness and orientation to mother’s face, eyes, and voice” “” “” “” “”
“” “4 days-anticipatory approach behavior at feeding” “” “” “” “” “” “3 to 4
weeks-infant smiles preferentially to mother’s voice
Age 30 days through 3 months” “” “” “Vocalization and gaze reciprocity further
elaborated from 1 to 3 months; babbling at 2 months, more with the mother than
with a stranger” “” “” “Social smile” “” “” “In strange situations, increased
clinging response to mother
Age 4 through 6 months” “” “” “Briefly soothed and comforted by sound of
mother’s voice” “” “” “Spontaneous, voluntary reaching for mother” “” “”
“Anticipatory posturing to be picked up” “” “” “Differential preference for
mother intensifies” “” “” “Subtle integration of responses to mother
Age 7 through 9 months” “” “” “Attachment behaviors further differentiated and
focused specifically on mother” “” “” “Separation distress, stranger distress,
strange-place distress
Age 10 through 15 months” “” “” “Crawls or walks toward mother” “” “” “Subtle
facial expressions (coyness, attentiveness)” “” “” “Responsive dialogue with
mother clearly established” “” “” “Early imitation of mother (vocal inflections,
facial expression)” “” “” “More fully developed separation distress and mother
preference” “” “” “Pointing gesture” “” “” “Walking to and from mother” “” “”
“Affectively positive reunion responses to mother after separation or,
paradoxically, short-lived, active avoidance or delayed protest
Age 16 months through 2 years” “” “” “Involvement in imitative jargon with
mother (12 to 14 months)” “” “” “Head-shaking "no" (15 to 16 months)” “” “”
“Transitional object used during the absence of mother” “” “” “Separation
anxiety diminishes” “” “” “Mastery of strange situations and persons when mother
is near” “” “” “Evidence of delayed imitation” “” “” “Object permanence” “” “”
“Microcosmic symbolic play
Age 25 months through 3 years” “” “” “Able to tolerate separations from mother
without distress when familiar with surroundings and given reassurances about
mother’s return” “” “” “Two- and three-word speech” “” “” “Stranger anxiety much
reduced” “” “” “Object consistency achieved-maintains composure and psychosocial
functioning without regression in absence of mother” “” “” “Microcosmic play and
social play; cooperation with others begins
Which of the following statements regarding crossover studies is true?
A. It eliminates selection bias.
B. They are a variation of the double-blind study.
C. They contain a treatment group and a control group.
D. They are a type of prospective study.
E. All of the above
The answer is E (all)
A crossover study is a variation of the double-blind study. The treatment group
and the control or placebo group change places at some point so that the placebo
group gets the treatment and the treatment group now receives the placebo. That
procedure eliminates selection bias. If the treatment group improves in both
instances and the placebo group does not, one can conclude that the makeup of
the two groups was truly random. Each group serves as the control for the other
Prevalence is the
A. risk of acquiring a condition at some point in time
B. ratio of people who acquire a disorder during a year’s time
C. proportion of a population that has a condition at any given moment in time
D. standard deviation
E. rate of first admissions to a hospital for a disorder
The answer is C
Prevalence is the proportion of a population that has a condition at any given
time. The ratio of people who acquire a disorder during a year’s time (new
cases) is called the annual incidence. In a stable situation, the prevalence is
approximately equal to the annual incidence times the average duration, measured
in years, of the condition. The risk of acquiring a condition at some time in
the future is the accumulation of age-specific annual incidence rates over a
period of time.
Standard deviation (SD) is a statistical measure of variability within a set of
values. For a normal distribution, about 68 percent of the values fall within
one SD of the mean, and about 95 percent lie within two SDs of the mean. It is
sometimes presented by [SIGMA], the Greek letter sigma.
The rate of first admissions to a hospital for a disorder is the number of all
first admissions to any hospital during a particular time.
In which of the following age groups is the stage of preoperational thought present? A. Birth to 2 years B. 2 to 7 years C. 7 to 11 years D. 11 through the end of adolescence E. None of the above
The state of preoperational thought is present in children 2 to 7 years old.
During this stage, children use symbols and language more extensively than in
the sensorimotor stage. Thinking is intuitive; children learn without the use of
reasoning. Preoperational thought is midway between socialized adult thought and
the completely autistic Freudian unconscious.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) used the term sensorimotor to describe the first stage,
present from birth to 2 years of age. Infants begin to learn through sensory
observation, and they gain control of their motor functions through activity, exploration, and manipulation of the environment. The stage of concrete
operations is present in children from 7 to 11 years of age. The stage of
concrete operations is so named because in this period, children operate and act
on the real and perceivable world of objects and events. Egocentric thought is
replaced by operational thought, which involves dealing with a wide array of
information in the world outside of the child. Therefore, children can now see
things from someone else’s perspective.
The formal operations stage is present from 11 years of age through the end of
adolescence. This stage is named so because a young person’s thoughts operate in
a formal, highly logical, systematic, and symbolic manner. This stage is
characterized by the ability to think abstractly, to reason deductively, and to
define concepts. It is also characterized by the emergence of skills for dealing
with permutations and combinations; young people can grasp the concept of
probabilities
Sensorimotor
Age (Yrs)
Period
Cognitive Developmental Characteristics
0-1.5 (to 2)
Sensorimotor
Divided into six stages, characterized by:
1. Inborn motor and sensory reflexes
2. Primary circular reaction
3. Secondary circular reaction
4. Use of familiar means
to obtain ends
5. Tertiary circular reaction and discovery through active
experimentation6. Insight and object permanence
Preoperations
Age (Yrs)
Period
Cognitive Developmental Characteristics
2-7
Preoperations sub period
Deferred imitation, symbolic play, graphic imagery (drawing), mental imagery,
and language
Concrete operations
Age (Yrs)
Period
Cognitive Developmental Characteristics
7-11
Concrete operations
Conservation of quantity, weight, volume, length, and time based on reversibility
by inversion or reciprocity; operations; class inclusion and seriation
Formal operations
Age (Yrs)
Period
Cognitive Developmental Characteristics
11 through the end of adolescence
Formal operations
Combinatorial system, whereby variables are isolated and all possible combinations
are examined; hypothetical-deductive thinking
aThis subperiod is considered by some authors to be a separate developmental
period
Asian patients seem to achieve a clinical response comparable to those of
non-Asian patients, even though they require a significantly lower dose of
A. lithium
B. antipsychotics
C. tricyclics
D. benzodiazepines
E. All of the above
The answer is E (all)
Asian patients require lower dosages of dopamine receptor antagonist (typical
antipsychotic) medications than comparable non-Asian patients to achieve a
desirable clinical outcome. Also, when treated on a fixed-dosage schedule,
Asians seem to develop significantly greater extrapyramidal adverse effects. One
study found a 52 percent higher plasma concentration of haloperidol (Haldol) in
Chinese schizophrenics living in China than in non-Asian schizophrenic patients
residing in the United States when both groups received treatment on a
fixed-dosage schedule. Another study demonstrated that Chinese schizophrenics
residing in Taiwan and Taipei achieved haloperidol plasma concentrations
comparable to those of white, African American, and Hispanic patients hospitalized
in San Antonio while using significantly lower daily dosages of haloperidol.
As is the case with neuroleptics, studies with tricyclic drugs have shown that
average dosages prescribed for Asians are significantly lower (up to 50 percent
lower) than dosages prescribed in the United States for non-Asians. The reasons
for this responsiveness have not been clearly established, although preliminary
evidence suggests differential responsiveness of relevant receptors, differences
in resulting plasma concentrations, or both.
Studies of prescription patterns as well as those comparing the pharmacokinetics
and pharmacodynamics of benzodiazepines across ethnic groups have established
the enhanced sensitivity of Asians to the effects of benzodiazepines. Typically
prescribed doses are one-half to two-thirds those of similar nonminority
populations. The ethnic differences in benzodiazepine metabolism are most often
linked to polymorphisms in the (S)-mephenytoin phenotype, yielding a higher
percentage of poor metabolizers in the Chinese ethnic group.
As with tricyclic drugs, antipsychotics, and benzodiazepines, Asians seem to
achieve clinical responses comparable to those of non-Asian patients using
significantly lower dosages of lithium, 0.5 to 0.7 mEq/L versus the 0.8 to 1.2
mEq/L generally required by white populations.
The \"choo-choo\" phenomenon is associated with which of the following types of social deprivation in monkeys? A. Total-isolation-reared monkeys B. Mother-only-reared monkeys C. Peer-only-reared monkeys D. Partial-isolation-reared monkeys E. Separation-reared monkeys
The answer is C
An area of animal research that has relevance to human behavior and psychopathology
is the longitudinal study of nonhuman primates. Monkeys have been observed from
birth to maturity, not only in their natural habitats and laboratory facsimiles
but also in laboratory settings that involve various degrees of social
deprivation early in life. Socially isolated monkeys are raised in varying
degrees of isolation and are not permitted to develop normal attachment bonds.
Social isolation techniques illustrate the effects of an infant’s early social
environment on subsequent development and separation techniques, which
illustrate the effects of loss of a significant attachment figure. The choo-choo
phenomenon is observed in peer-only-reared infant rhesus monkeys. It is the
actual physical alignment these monkeys have been observed to form (that of a
"choo-choo train"), in addition to exhibiting behavior such as becoming easily
frightened, clinging to each other, being reluctant to explore, and engaging in
minimal play (Figure 3.1).
a. Behavioral Model of learning
b. Psychoanalytic Model of learning
3. 15. Childhood experiences are the focus of the analysis
B
a. Behavioral Model of learning
b. Psychoanalytic Model of learning
Theory is based on experimentation
A
Differences between Behavioural model and psychoanalytic
Behavior is determined by current contingencies, reinforcement history, and
genetic endowment
Behavior is determined by intrapsychic processes
Problem behavior is the focus of study and treatment
Behavior is but a symbol of intrapsychic processes and a symptom of unconscious
conflict; the underlying conflict is the focus of treatment
Contemporary variables, such as contingencies of reinforcement, are the focus of
the analysis
Historical variables, such as childhood experiences, are the focus of the
analysis
Treatment entails the application of the principles of operant or classical
conditioning
Treatment consists of bringing unconscious conflicts into consciousness
Objective observation, measurement, and experimentation are the methods used;
the focus is on observable behavior and environmental events (antecedents and
consequences)
Subjective methods of interpretation of behavior and inference regarding
unobservable events (e.g., intrapsychic processes) are used
Theory is based on experimentation
Theory is predominantly based on case histories
Tenets can be formulated into testable hypotheses and evaluated through experimentation
Many tenets cannot be formulated into testable hypotheses to be evaluated
through experimentation
a. Behavioral Model of learning
b. Psychoanalytic Model of learning
Testable hypotheses that can be evaluated through experimentation
A
a. Behavioral Model of learning
b. Psychoanalytic Model of learning
Theory is predominantly based on case histories
B
a. Behavioral Model of learning
b. Psychoanalytic Model of learning
Subjective methods of interpretation
B
a. Classical conditioning
b. Operant conditioning
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
A
a. Classical conditioning
b. Operant conditioning
Instrumental conditioning
B
a. Classical conditioning
b. Operant conditioning
BF Skinner
B
a. Classical conditioning
b. Operant conditioning
Repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus with one that evokes a response
A
a. Classical conditioning
b. Operant conditioning
Learning occurs as the consequence of action
B
In the case of
operant conditioning, learning is thought to occur as a result of the consequences
of a person’s actions and the resultant effect on the environment. As B. F.
Skinner (1904-1990) stated, "A person does not act upon the world, the world
acts upon him."
a. Classical conditioning
b. Operant conditioning
Learning takes place as a result of the co-occurrence of environmental
events
A
In classical conditioning, learning is thought to take
place as a result of the contiguity of environmental events. When events occur
closely together in time, people will come to associate the two.
Pavlov experiment
The Russian physiologist and Nobel prize winner, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849-1936), observed in his work on gastric secretion that a dog salivated not
only when food was placed in its mouth but also at the sound of the footsteps of
the person coming to feed the dog, even though the dog could not see or smell
the food. Pavlov analyzed these events and called the saliva flow that occurred
with the sound of footsteps a conditioned response (CR)-a response elicited
under certain conditions by a particular stimulus.
In a typical Pavlovian experiment, a stimulus (S) that had no capacity to evoke
a particular response before training did so after consistent association with
another stimulus. For example, under normal circumstances, a dog does not
salivate at the sound of a bell, but when the bell sound is always followed by
the presentation of food, the dog ultimately pairs the bell and the food.
Eventually, the bell sound alone elicits salivation (CR).
Skinner’s theory of learning and behavior is known as operant or instrumental
conditioning. Whereas in classical conditioning an animal is passive or
restrained and behavior is reinforced by the experimenter, in operant conditioning
the animal is active and behaves in a way that produces a reward; thus, learning
occurs as a consequence of action. For example, a rat receives a reinforcing
stimulus (food) only when it responds correctly by pressing a lever. Food,
approval, praise, good grades, or any other response that satisfies a need in an
animal or a person can serve as a reward.
