Learning disorders Flashcards
Which of the following is not a sign of spelling disorder?
A. Same word spelled in different ways within one piece of written work
B. Difficulty remembering how to spell common words
C. Excessive problems generating text
D. Inability to select correct spelling from two plausible alternatives
E. None of the above
The answer is C
Excessive problems generating text is a sign of a written expression disorder,
but it does not apply to spelling disorder
A recently proposed definition of dyslexia includes which of the following
components?
A. It is one of several distinct learning disabilities not characterized by
difficulties in single-word decoding.
B. It does not usually reflect insufficient phonological processing.
C. It is not the result of sensory impairment.
D. It rarely includes a conspicuous problem with acquiring proficiency in
writing and spelling.
E. None of the above
The answer is C
Dyslexia is one of several distinct learning disabilities. It is a language-based
disorder characterized by difficulties in single-word decoding, usually
reflecting insufficient phonological processing. These difficulties are
unexpected in relation to age and other cognitive and academic abilities. The
difficulties are not the result of generalized developmental disability or of
sensory impairment. Dyslexia is manifested by variable difficulty with different
forms of language, often (not rarely) including problems with reading, writing,
and spelling. This recently proposed definition reflects two important advances.
First, instead of defining reading disorders generally, it focuses on one type
of reading disorder. Second, it localizes the difficulty associated with
dyslexia at the single-word level and pinpoints the cause as insufficient
phonological processing. Although this definition has not gained universal
acceptance, it represents a significant step forward in addressing some of the
previous confusion and disagreement surrounding previous definitions of learning
disabilities.
A child must be at least how old for a diagnosis of written expression disorder to be made? A. 5 years old B. 6 years old C. 7 years old D. 8 years old E. 9 years old
8
A diagnosis of disorder of written expression is not usually made before the
child is at least 8 years old because normal difficulties in motor, spelling,
and handwriting skills in younger children (e.g., letter reversals, invented
spelling, inability to copy printed material) cannot be reliably differentiated
from atypical problems. Mental retardation, impaired fine motor coordination,
impaired vision or hearing, communication disorders, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) are all associated with difficulties in various aspects of
written expression. In a child with mental retardation, disorder of written
expression may only be diagnosed if the child’s writing skills are significantly
below those expected of children with that level of general intellectual
functioning. Impaired vision and hearing can be ruled out through screening
tests. Impaired motor coordination, arising from developmental coordination
disorder or neurological damage, may produce illegible handwriting, but in the
absence of additional impairments in spelling and expression of thought in
writing, a disorder of written expression is ruled out. ADHD is frequently
associated with difficulties in producing written work. A concurrent diagnosis
is permissible, but caution is needed to determine whether the symptoms of ADHD
have arisen de novo in the intermediate grades and are restricted to writing
situations only, in which case a diagnosis of ADHD may be ruled out. Conversely,
in the presence of a confirmed diagnosis of ADHD, caution is needed to determine
whether the writing problems are reflected solely by careless spelling or
punctuation errors and messy handwriting (as opposed to disordered handwriting),
in which case a disorder of written expression may be ruled out. Language
disorders frequently precede or may co-occur with a disorder of written
expression.
Common Signs of Disorder of Written Expression
Signs of severe problems in written expression
Avoidance of written work
Excessive problems generating text (output failure)
Excessive technical errors of punctuation, capitalization, grammar, word usage,
sentence structure, and paragraph structure
Frequent omission of words in sentences or incomplete sentences
Use of limited vocabulary in writing (perhaps secondary to spelling problems)
Poor organization of written work (e.g., poor paragraph organization; poor story
composition, including missing story elements, such as settings, characters, and
themes; poor cohesion within and between sentences, as indicated by unclear
referents, no sentence starters, and abrupt endings)
Failure to edit work
Disordered and illegible handwriting (e.g., letter forms that are not decipherable;
admixture of printing and cursive writing; inappropriate admixture of upper- and
lower-case letters)
Common spelling problems in disorder of written expression or specific spelling
disorder
Confusion of similar letters or sounds (may result from problems in morphology)
(e.g., "jumpt" for "jumped"; "caterpault" for "catapult")
Inability to select correct spelling from two plausible alternatives (e.g.,
"successful" vs. "succesfull"; "necessary" vs. "necessery")
Frequent use of nonpermissible letter strings (e.g., "egszakt" for "exact";
"freeeqwnt" for "frequent")
Same word spelled in different ways within one piece of written work
Difficulty remembering how to spell common words
Can learn for spelling tests but fails to remember correct spelling in written
work
Reading disorder is characterized by all of the following except
A. impairment in recognizing words
B. poor reading comprehension
C. increased prevalence among family members
D. occurrence in three to four times as many girls as boys
E. omissions, additions, and distortions of words in oral reading
The answer is D
Reading disorder occurs in three to four times as many boys as girls (not vice
versa). This rate in boys may be falsely elevated because boys with reading
disorders commonly also have behavioral problems, and the latter symptoms often
prompt scrutiny of boys’ psychological and learning issues.
Reading disorder is characterized by impairment in recognizing words, slow and
inaccurate reading, and poor reading comprehension. Omissions, additions, and
distortions of words are made in oral reading. Reading achievement is below that
expected for the individual’s age on standardized testing. Although no causal
factor has been identified in the disorder, increased prevalence in family
members suggests a genetic contribution.
Which of the following statements does not characterize mathematics
disorder?
A. It is more common in boys than girls.
B. The prevalence is estimated to be about 6 percent in school-age children with
normal intelligence.
C. It includes impairment in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division.
D. It is usually apparent by the time a child is 8 years old.
E. All of the above
The answer is A
Unlike reading disorder, in which the prevalence appears to be higher in boys,
there is no demonstrated gender difference in mathematics disorder, and the
problem may be more common in girls than in boys. The prevalence of mathematics
disorder is estimated at 6 percent of school-age children with normal intelligence.
Mathematics disorder includes impairment in addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division. The disorder is usually apparent by age 8 years, although it may
present as early as 6 or as late as 10 years of age. Mathematics disorder
commonly coexists with reading disorder
Disorder of written expression
A. presents earlier than do reading disorder and communication disorders
B. occurs only in children with reading disorder
C. is not diagnosed until the teenage years
D. includes disability in spelling, grammar, and punctuation
E. is always self-limited
The answer is D
Disorder of written expression includes disability in spelling, grammar, and
punctuation. The disorder is characterized by writing skills that are significantly
below the expected level given the child’s age and intelligence (as measured by
standardized testing). Because children learn to speak and read before learning
to write, disorder of written expression presents later (not earlier) than do
reading disorder and communication disorders. Disorder of written expression can
occur in children both with and without concomitant reading disorder. The
disorder should be diagnosed in the school-age years; in severe cases, problems
are evident by age 7 years, but in milder cases, the disorder may not be apparent until age 10 years or later. The disorder is not self-limited; children
with mild to moderate problems do well with timely remedial work around writing
skills, but more severely affected children may require ongoing, extensive
remediation through high school and even into college. Remedial treatment
involves direct practice in spelling, sentence construction, and rules of
grammar.
Which form of instruction helps to reinforce orthographic representations of letters and spellings, thereby acting as an effective preventative measure for disorder of written expression? A. Spelling B. Grammar C. Penmanship D. Writing E. All of the above
The answer is C
Penmanship (handwriting) is not just a motor process. Rather, handwriting draws
on letter knowledge and in turn may reinforce orthographic representations of
letters and spellings, so that practicing a word’s spelling appears to reinforce
phonemic awareness and facilitate word reading. Also, because transcription
skills (spelling, handwriting) uniquely predict compositional fluency throughout
the elementary grades, it is not surprising that writing instruction in
kindergarten facilitates the development of both the content and fluency of
written expression in the later grades.
Janet, age 11 years, has a long history of school problems. She failed
first grade and was removed from a special classroom in second grade after
arguing and fighting repeatedly with her peers. She is currently in a regular
sixth grade class and is struggling academically; she is failing reading and
English and is barely passing in math and science; her performance in art and
sports is significantly better. Her teacher describes Janet as "a slow learner
with a poor memory" and notes that Janet does poorly in group settings and
requires considerable individual attention in class.
Janet has no history of medical problems, and her developmental history was
unremarkable-she sat up at 6 months, walked at 12 months, and began speaking at
16 months. Examination revealed an open and friendly girl who bristled at
questions about her academic difficulties. She complained of being "teased"
and "bossed around" by children at school but described a number of friendships
with peers in her neighborhood. Intelligence testing revealed a full-scale IQ of
97. Wide-range achievement testing produced grade-level scores of 2.8 for
reading, 3.3 for spelling, and 4.3 for arithmetic.
The most likely diagnosis is
A. disorder of written expression
B. expressive language disorder
C. phonological disorder
D. reading disorder
E. none of the above
The answer is D
The most likely diagnosis for Janet is reading disorder. Reading disorder is
characterized by marked impairment in the development of word recognition skills
and reading comprehension that cannot be explained by mental retardation,
inadequate schooling, visual or hearing defect, or a neurological disorder.
Children with reading disorders make many errors in their oral reading,
including omissions, additions, and distortions of words. Janet’s difficulties apparently, were limited to reading and spelling. She had average intelligence
and normal scores on achievement tests of arithmetic but markedly low scores for
spelling and reading.
Disorder of written expression is characterized by poor performance in writing
and composition. Expressive language disorder is characterized by serious
impairment in age-appropriate expressive language. Phonological disorder is
characterized by frequent and recurrent misarticulations of speech sounds,
resulting in abnormal speech. The case described does not meet the criteria for
any diagnosis other than reading disorder.
Which of the following is not true about dyslexia?
A. Dyslexia is neurobiologic in nature.
B. Dyslexia is characterized by difficulty in word recognition.
C. Dyslexia is a phonological deficit.
D. Dyslexia causes people to read words backwards.
E. All of the above
The answer is D
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It
does not cause backwards reading. It is characterized by difficulties with
accurate or dysfluent word recognition (or both) and poor spelling and decoding
abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological
component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive
abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction.
Which is the correct definition of the term quantitative literacy?
A. An understanding of basic numerical law
B. A diagnostic label used to refer to impairment in the development of
arithmetic skills
C. The ability to apply different aspects of mathematics to events in daily life
D. To effectively use quantitative information to guide health behavior
E. None of the above
The answer is C
Numeracy or quantitative literacy is the ability to apply different aspects of
mathematics to understand, predict, and control routine. Health numeracy is
typically defined as the individual-level skills needed to understand and
effectively use quantitative health information to guide health behavior and
decision making.
It is essential to understand the distinctions and relationships among
mathematics, arithmetic, and numeracy (also known as quantitative literacy) to
create an operational definition of mathematics disorder. The related sciences
that collectively fall under the term mathematics (e.g., algebra, calculus,
arithmetic geometry, analytical geometry, chaos theory, number theory, set
theory) are concerned with the study of number, quantity, shape and space, and
the interrelationships using rules and a specialized notation. In contrast to
the term mathematics is the term arithmetic, which is based on numerical
calculations and quantitative number theory. Arithmetic requires an understanding
of basic numerical law and the rules that govern the four basic operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, as well as decoding and
manipulating symbols. The basic skills of arithmetic are an essential foundation
to the learning of more complex mathematics.
Mathematics disorder is a diagnostic label that is generally used to refer to
impairment in the development of arithmetic skills, including but not restricted
to computational procedures used to solve arithmetic problems and the representation
and retrieval of basic arithmetic facts from long-term memory. To warrant classification as a disorder, the individual’s performance in arithmetic must be
substantially below that expected for age, measured intellectual abilities, and
education. Also, the impairment must be sufficiently serious to interfere with
academic achievement or daily living.
What is the prevalence rate for mathematics disorder that is comorbid with
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
A. 1 percent
B. 2 percent
C. 3 percent
D. 4 percent
E. 5 percent
The answer is D
In general, population studies find that the majority of mathematics disorder
patients manifest with comorbid reading disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) (4 percent), and only a minority have pure mathematics disorder
or dyscalculia (e.g., 2 percent). According to the text revision of the fourth
edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR),
mathematics disorder is a relatively rare learning disorder (i.e., estimated
prevalence of 1 percent in the general school-age population) compared with
reading disorder. However, this may be an underestimate because general school
population studies conducted in the United States, England, Germany, Switzerland,
and Israel provide prevalence estimates of mathematics disorder ranging from 3
to 11 percent (average of 6 percent) and high rates of various comorbidities,
such as ADHD, reading disorder (also known as dyslexia), or anxiety disorder. It
is important to note that prevalence estimates typically refer to disorders of
arithmetic rather than disorders of mathematics
A. Reading disorder
B. Mathematics disorder
The study of this disorder has been neglected even though it appears to
occur with the same frequency as learning disorders in other areas.
B
A. Reading disorder
B. Mathematics disorder
The etiology is unknown.
Both
A. Reading disorder
B. Mathematics disorder
There are higher monozygotic than dizygotic concordance rates.
Both
