Social Psych Flashcards
According to the covariation model, people are most likely to attribute the behavior of another person to external causes when consensus is ___, consistency is ___ and distinctiveness is ____
high
The actor-observer bias is an attributional bias and refers to the tendency to attribute our own behaviors to ____factors and the behavior of other people to ______factors.
situational (external); dispositional (internal)
group attribution error
occurs when people believe that their group’s decision is consistent with the decision of each individual group member, even in the presence of information suggesting that the group decision was not unanimous.
what is described here? tendency to overestimate the role of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factors when making attributions about the behaviors of other people.
fundamental attribution error
It occurs when members of an in-group consistently attribute negative outcomes for out-group members to dispositional factors and positive outcomes to situational factors.
ultimate attribution error
the tendency to overestimate the role of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factors when making attributions about the behaviors of other people.
fundamental attribution error
the attributions we make about ourselves and others and refers to the tendency to attribute our own behaviors to situational factors and the behaviors of others to dispositional factors.
actor observer effect
tendency to seek and pay attention to information that confirms our attitudes and beliefs and ignore information that refutes them.
confirmation bias
regardless of whether people have positive or negative self-concepts, they seek feedback from and prefer to spend time with others who confirm their self-concepts.
self verification theory
when we overestimate the relationship between two variables that are not related or are only slightly related.
illusory correleation
“tendency to ignore or underuse base rate information (information about most people) and instead to be influenced by the distinctive features of the case being judged”
base rate fallacy
tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people share our opinions, values, and beliefs and has been found to affect judgments in a variety of situations.
false consensus effect
when people “believe that a particular chance event is affected by previous events and that chance events will ‘even out’ in the short run”
gambler’s fallacy
counterfactual thinking
tendency to imagine what might have happened but didn’t and can involve imagining either better or worse outcomes. It’s most likely to occur when the outcome is personally significant and it’s relatively easy to imagine an alternative outcome
occurs when people believe they can influence events that are outside their control.
illusory control
spotlight effect
when people “believe that more people take note of their actions and appearance than is actually the case”
illusion of transparency
similar to the spotlight effect in that both occur when people overestimate the extent to which other people notice them. However, the illusion of transparency applies to thoughts and feelings rather than actions and appearance and occurs when people “overestimate the extent to which others can discern their internal states”
It refers to people’s judgments after an event occurs and is the tendency of people to inaccurately believe they predicted the event would occur or to overestimate the likelihood that they could have predicted that the event would occur.
hindsight bias
sunk-cost fallacy
the tendency of people to continue investing resources (e.g., time, money) in an endeavor when they have already invested significant resources that have not produced desired outcomes and/or are not recoverable.
There is evidence that older adults are ____ susceptible than younger adults to the sunk-cost fallacy
less
make judgments about the frequency or likelihood of an event, we ignore base rates and other important information and focus, instead, on the extent to which the event resembles a prototype (typical case).
representativeness heuristic
conjunction fallacy
The representativeness heuristic is used to explain the conjunction fallacy, which “occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone”
availability heuristic
we base our judgments about the frequency or likelihood of an event on how easy it is to recall relevant examples of the event.
we estimate the frequency of an event or other value by beginning with a starting point and then making upward or downward adjustments.
anchoring and adjustment heuristic
simulation heuristic
we judge the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to imagine (mentally simulate) the event happening to us or others: Events that are more easily imagined are judged to be more likely to occur.
When using the simulation heuristic, a person imagines alternatives to a negative event that has already occurred, and the imagined alternatives can cause the person to have a stronger negative emotional reaction to the actual event.
According to Tversky and Kahneman, the ___heuristic is most useful for understanding the conjunction fallacy, which occurs because people are more likely to rely on _____ than on logic or probability theory when making probability judgments.
representativeness
Social judgment theory predicts that the more _____ a person is with one side of the issue addressed by a persuasive message, the smaller his/her latitudes of acceptance and non-commitment and the larger his/her latitude of rejection.
ego-involved
According to the theory of planned behavior, a ____ to perform a particular behavior is the best predictor of whether or not he or she will engage in the behavior.
person’s intention
four methods that people usually use to reduce cognitive dissonance:
replace or subtract the dissonant cognition, add a consonant cognition,
increase the importance of a consonant cognition, or
decrease the importance of the dissonant cognition
The ______predicts that, when people are externally reinforced for engaging in an intrinsically rewarding behavior, their intrinsic motivation declines (Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973).
overjustification effect
Ajzen and Fishbein’s (2005) theory of planned behavior predicts that ____ is affected by a person’s attitude toward a behavior, what the person thinks others believe he/she should do, and the person’s confidence in his/her ability to perform the behavior
behavior intention
According to the _____, a person’s willingness to engage in a behavior depends on the person’s perceived acceptability of the behavior which, in turn, is determined by the person’s ____ of people who engage in the behavior.
prototype/willingness model (Gibbons & Gerrard, 1995); prototype (social image)
The Health Belief Model identifies the following 6 factors as contributors to the likelihood that a person will engage in behaviors that reduce the risk for developing a disorder:
perceived susceptibility to the disorder, perceived severity of the consequences of having the disorder, perceived benefits of taking action, perceived barriers to taking action, self-efficacy, and cues to action.
subjects in the false and no information groups had no explanation for their physiological arousal and, as predicted by _____, they looked to their circumstances to find an explanation. ie. “I’m feeling angry”
self-perception theory
______distinguishes between latitudes of acceptance, rejection, and noncommitment, which represent different degrees of similarity between a person’s current position and the position advocated by a persuasive message.
Social judgment theory
Evidence for self-perception theory is provided by studies confirming the ______. It predicts that, when people are externally reinforced for engaging in an intrinsically rewarding behavior, they’ll think they are performing the behavior because of the external rewards, which will cause their intrinsic motivation to decline.
overjustification effect.
high-credible communicators initially have a greater effect than low-credible communicators on recipients’ attitude change, but this difference fades because, over time, the recipients tend to remember the persuasive message but forget its source. This is referred to as ____
sleeper effect
Dittmar et al.’s meta-analysis confirmed that prioritization of materialist values has a ____effect on personal well-being. They found that higher levels of materialism were associated, for example, with ___levels of life satisfaction, mental health, and physical health.
negative, lower
_____ is the tendency of people to weigh losses more heavily than gains. For example, Kahneman and Tversky (1979) found that the aggravation caused by losing a specific amount of money is about twice as intense as the satisfaction caused by gaining the same amount of money.
loss aversion
A meta-analysis of the research led Rhodes and Wood (1992) to conclude that _______________ are associated with the greatest susceptibility to persuasion.
moderate levels of self-esteem and low levels of intelligence
McGuire’s (1973) attitude inoculation hypothesis addresses the usefulness of __________ for increasing resistance to persuasion.
a refutational defense
When people will be exposed to arguments that address two sides of a controversial issue, a recency effect is most likely to occur when:
one side is presented one week after the other side and attitudes are measured immediately after the second presentation.
According to Tuckman and Jensen’s (1977) five-stage model, the development of commitment to a group and willingness to talk about issues and concerns is characteristic of the:
norming stage
A ____ task requires group members to choose the best solution, decision, or judgment from those offered by each group member, which is usually the one offered by the most competent member.
disjunctive
When working on a ____ task, the group’s output is the average of each member’s estimate, judgment, or other input.
compensatory
_______ has shown that the attractiveness of a person who is perceived to be competent increases when that person commits a blunder, while the attractiveness of a person who is perceived to be mediocre decreases when he or she commits a blunder
pratfall effect
what theory explains the following: (a) we’re more attracted to people who initially dislike us but then change their minds as they get to know us than we are to people who express constant liking for us and (b) we’re less
gain-loss effect
double-shot hypothesis
predicts that men and women have different expectations about the co-occurrence of sexual and emotional infidelity: Men believe that, for women, being emotionally involved with someone does not necessarily require sexual involvement; but, when a women is sexually involved, she’s also emotionally involved. In contrast, women believe that, for men, being sexually involved with someone does not necessarily require emotional involvement; but, when a man is emotionally involved, he’s also sexually involved.
pluralistic ignorance
a misperception of how others are thinking or feeling:
evaluation apprehension
also known as audience inhibition and refers to concerns about being judged negatively by others.
negative state relief model
(Cialdini, Darby & Vincent, 1973) focuses on the role of egoism and proposes that people help others to reduce their own distress. According to this model, people may feel empathy for a person-in-need, but their empathy produces sadness or guilt, which they attempt to alleviate by providing help.
goal of jigsaw classroom
to evaluate the effects of superordinate goals on prejudice and discrimination in ethnically diverse elementary school classrooms.
Social Identity Theory
people have a natural tendency to categorize people into groups, to identify with one or more groups, and to favor in-groups. Feeling positively toward an in-group increases a group member’s self-esteem, but it can also lead to prejudice and discrimination against members of out-groups.
infrahumanization theory:
As described by Leyens and his colleagues (2001, 2007), infrahumanization “is a process by which people consider their ingroup as fully human and outgroups as less human and more animal-like”; primary and secondary emotions
contact hypothesis
contact between members of majority and minority groups is most effective for reducing prejudice and discrimination when (a) members of the groups have equal status; (b) members must work together to achieve common (superordinate) goals; (c) there is no competition between members; and (d) the contact is sanctioned by law, custom, or institutional authorities.
Symbolic racism
characterized by a belief in egalitarianism coupled with the beliefs that prejudice and discrimination no longer exist, that members of certain minority groups violate traditional White American values such as the Protestant work ethic, individualism, and self-determination, and that the social and economic hardships of these groups are due to a lack of effort and other internal factors.
aversive racism
characterized by a belief in egalitarianism. However, it’s accompanied by a non-prejudiced self-image and negative, often unconscious feelings about minority group members that were acquired early in life.
_____racism refers to “laws, policies, and practices that produce cumulative, durable, and race-based inequalities, and includes the failure to correct previous laws and practices that were explicitly racist”
structural
_____ racism is the result of “policies, practices, and procedures of institutions – such as school, health care, law enforcement, and criminal justice systems – that marginalize diverse racial groups” (p. 2).
Institutional
ambivalent sexism theory (Glick & Fiske, 1996, 2001)
sexism includes two distinct but co-existing and complementary components: Hostile sexism involves “antipathy toward women who are viewed as usurping men’s power,” while benevolent sexism involves “a subjectively favorable, chivalrous ideology that offers protection and affection to women who embrace conventional roles”
Byrne’s (1971) law of attraction states that there’s a ____ relationship between attitude similarity and attraction
positive
TMT predicts that people defend themselves against death anxiety by adopting a _____ and maintaining their self-esteem.
cultural worldview
Which of the following is most useful for explaining the results of Schachter’s (1959) “misery loves miserable company” study?
Social comparison theory
_____ “occurs when the arousal caused by one stimulus is added to the arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed (erroneously) to the second stimulus”
Excitation transfer
frustration-aggression hypothesis
predicts that the inability to achieve a goal leads to frustration which, in turn, leads to aggressive behavior.
Leyens et al. distinguish between primary (non-uniquely human) emotions and secondary (uniquely human) emotions and propose that members of ingroups tend to attribute ___positive and negative secondary emotions to members of outgroups than they attribute to members of their ingroups.
fewer
Adorno’s F Scale measures traits and tendencies that are associated with:
authoritarianism
