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research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the research steps?

A

Aim, Hypothesis, Procedure, Research, Conclusion

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2
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

H0
‘no significant difference’

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3
Q

What is an alternative hypothesis?

A

H1
Directional (1 tailed) - ‘significantly bigger/ smaller’
Non-directional (2 tailed) -‘a significant difference’

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4
Q

Advantages of random sampling?

A

Everyone gets an equal chance
Unbiased

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5
Q

Disadvantages of random sampling?

A

Not representative
May not participate once chosen

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6
Q

Advantages of opportunity sampling?

A

Quick
Cheap
Fast

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7
Q

Disadvantages of opportunity sampling?

A

unrepresentative

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8
Q

Advantages of self selected sampling?

A

Easy
Ethical
Full co operation

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9
Q

Disadvantage of self selected sampling?

A

Unrepresentative
Long time to volunteer

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10
Q

Advantage of snowball sampling?

A

Quick
Sensitive topics

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11
Q

Disadvantage of snowball sampling?

A

Unrepresentative (same type of people)

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12
Q

Advantage of stratified sampling?

A

best represents entire population

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13
Q

Disadvantage of stratified sampling?

A

Expensive
Time consuming

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14
Q

Advantage of primary data?

A

Fits specific needs
Up to date
Control over data

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15
Q

Disadvantage of primary data?

A

Expensive
Time consuming
Not always possible

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16
Q

Advantage of secondary data?

A

Free
Ease of access
Time saving
New insights

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17
Q

Disadvantage of secondary data?

A

Not specific to your needs
Lack of control
Biasness

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18
Q

Advantage of quantitative data?

A

Large scale/samples
Reliable
Patterns and trends
Objective

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19
Q

Disadvantage of quantitative data?

A

No reasoning

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20
Q

Advantage of qualitative?

A

More valid
Richer/in depth
Reasoning

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21
Q

Disadvantage of qualitative data?

A

Small scale
Unreliable
Subjective

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22
Q

What’s internal reliability and what test measures it?

A

How consistently a method measures within itself
Split-half method

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23
Q

What is external reliability and what test measures it?

A

How consistently a method measures over time when repeated
Test-re-test method

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24
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

A degree of consensus amongst raters

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25
Q

What is Internal validity?

A

The test or measure being used

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26
Q

what is face validity?

A

at face value does it appear to measure what is meant to


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27
Q

what is criterion validity?

A

how well findings predict what happens beyond research

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28
Q

what is concurrent validity? 

A

comparing a new method with an already established one

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29
Q

what is construct validity?

A

Is it measuring what it is supposed to?

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30
Q

What is external validity?

A

Refers to issues beyond the investigation

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31
Q

what is ecological validity?

A

If the method measures behaviour that is representative of naturally occurring behaviour

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32
Q

what is population validity?

A

If it can be generalised to the whole population

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33
Q

What are the seven ethical issues?

A

informed consent
right to withdraw
confidentiality
competence
protection from harm
debrief
deception 

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34
Q

What are the levels of measurements?

A

interval
ordinal
nominal 

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35
Q

what is interval?

A

Fixed unit with equal distance between points on the safe numerical scale that (can go below zero)

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36
Q

what is ordinal?

A

Ordered data, no true mathematical value

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37
Q

what is nominal?

A

named categories, no true mathematical value, basic form of data 

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38
Q

What are the measures of central tendency?

A

mean median mode 

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39
Q

What are the measures of dispersion and what do they describe?

A

they describe the spread of data from the mean
normal distribution, positively skewed distribution, negatively skewed distribution 

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40
Q

what does normal distribution look like

A

Bell shape with symmetry at the new value

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41
Q

What does positively skewed distribution look like?

A

P shape (mode median mean) measures central tendency increased in value

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42
Q

what does a negatively skewed
distribution look like

A

measures of central tendency will increase in value, mean median mode

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43
Q

What are the measures of dispersion?

A

Sample variance
Sample standard deviation
Range

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44
Q

Advantages of the variance?

A

Takes into account every score
Not distorted by extreme scores
Allows us to compare groups of data

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45
Q

Disadvantages of variance

A

Calculation isn’t as easy as the range
Not as accurate as standard deviation

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46
Q

Advantages of sample standard deviation

A

Interprets how useful a score is
uses all numbers

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47
Q

Disadvantage of sample standard deviation?

A

very sensitive

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48
Q

How to calculate sample variance and standard deviation?

A

In column 1 find the mean of the scores
In column 2 take away the mean from each score
In column 3 square each result
Add all the square numbers together
Sum of square numbers/N-1
If standard deviation square root
Ignore any negative signs

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49
Q

What are extraneous and confounding variables?

A

E-unintentional effect on results, can attempt to be controlled
C-unintentional effect on results, cant be controlled

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50
Q

Types of experiments?

A

Lab
Field
Quasi

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51
Q

Advantages of lab experiments?

A

Reliable

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52
Q

Disadvantages of lab experiments?

A

low in ecological validity
demand characteristics

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53
Q

Advantage of field experiments?

A

High in ecological validity

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54
Q

Advantage of Quasi experiments?

A

High population validity

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55
Q

Disadvantage of quasi experiments?

A

Hard to establish cause and effect

56
Q

What are the experimental designs?

A

Independent measures-different participants take part in each condition
Repeated measures-same participants take part in each both conditions
Matched pairs- different participants with same characteristic

57
Q

Advantages of independent measures

A

no order effects, cheaper, one set of materials

58
Q

Disadvantages of independent measures

A

difference between participants
twice as many participants



59
Q

Advantage of repeated measures

A

fewer participants
quicker
cheaper

60
Q

disadvantage of repeated measures

A

potential order effects
practice/ fatigue effect

61
Q

advantages of matched pairs

A

no difference between participants no order effects, cheaper, one set of materials

62
Q

Disadvantage of matched pairs

A

Time consuming, not always perfectly matched

63
Q

type of correlations

A

Positive
negative
no correlation

64
Q

what are the correlation coefficients?

A

-1 to +1
-1 perfect negative
+1 perfect positive
0 no correlation

65
Q

Strength of correlations

A

Good pilot study to generate a hypothesis
Research variables that would be unethical to manipulate
Understand relationship between 2 variables

66
Q

Weakness of correlations?

A

Doesn’t show causation
can be misleading
tells of nothing about the other variables

67
Q

what are the stages of observations?

A

selection
recording
analysis
interpretation

68
Q

What are the types of observations?

A

naturalistic
controlled
non participant
participant
covert
overt

69
Q

advantage of naturalistic observations

A

Ecological validity, reduced chance of demand characteristics

70
Q

Disadvantage of naturalistic observations

A

Not reliable, lack of control and informed consent

71
Q

Advantage of controlled observation

A

reliability
lackof extreneous variables

lots of quantitive and qualitative data

72
Q

disadvantage of non-participant observations

A

not a great understanding as not participating
demand characteristics (if aware)

73
Q

advantage of participant observations

A

can understand firsthand
high validity of findings

74
Q

disadvantage of participant observation

A

Demand characteristics
consent issues (if covert)
relies on observers memory


75
Q

Advantages of covert observation

A

no demand characteristics

76
Q

disadvantages of covert observation

A

No consent

77
Q

advantages of overt observation

A

high ecological validity
informed consent
right to withdraw

78
Q

disadvantages of overt observation

A

demand characteristics

79
Q

What are advantages of structured observations?

A

high in reliability
easier to observe due to the nature

80
Q

disadvantages of structured observations

A

Low ecological validity
demand characteristics

81
Q

advantages of unstructured observations

A

Natural behaviour, so ecological validity

82
Q

disadvantages of unstructured observations

A

might miss behaviours
might misinterpret behaviours
can go off task

83
Q

How to deal with observer bias

A

use inter-rater reliability
can be improved by:
pilot study -ensure categories operationalised
train observers

84
Q

Advantages of time sampling

A

observation takes place over the greater time period
provides qualitative data

85
Q

disadvantages of time sampling

A

behaviours may be missed
little insight into frequency of behaviours

86
Q

advantages of event sampling

A

behaviours won’t be missed
quantitive data

87
Q

disadvantages of event sampling

A

Time consuming
rare behaviours may be missed

88
Q

What are types of self report techniques?

A

questionnaires, structured interviews, unstructured interviews, semi structured interviews

89
Q

strength of questionnaires

A

reliable, quick, cheap confidential so honest

90
Q

weakness of questionnaires

A

Low response rate, best fit answers,
no qualitative insights

91
Q

strengths of structured interviews

A

Quantitative, reliable, easy to use

92
Q

disadvantage of structured questionnaires

A

Limited to fixed questions, interviewer bias, social desirability

93
Q

advantages of unstructured interview

A

in-depth information, ethical so uncomfortable questions can be avoided

94
Q

disadvantage of unstructured interviews

A

can go off topic, interviewer bias, not reliable

95
Q

advantage of semi structured interviews

A

extra questions to confirm information, valid, qualitative data

96
Q

weakness of semi structured interviews

A

interviewer bias, time-consuming, hard to interpret

97
Q

how to write a good question

A

clarity, make sure the question is clear
bias, no leading questions
analysis

98
Q

advantage of open questions

A

qualitative data, ecological validity

99
Q

disadvantage of open questions

A

Unreliable
people can lie
time-consuming
difficult to analyse due to subjectiveness


100
Q

Advantage of closed questions

A

fast, easy, quantitative data, reliability

101
Q

disadvantage of closed questions

A

may not contain participants preferred responses.
Participants may not understand I might want to elaborate

102
Q

what is a rating scale?

A

A simple numerical scale

103
Q

what are advantages of a rating scale?

A

quantitative data
easy to respond reliable and generalisable
positive plus negative scales can be used(scores reversed, stopping response bias)

104
Q

What are disadvantages of rating scales

A

only quantitative data
can’t measure complex variables (attitudes)
response bias
points only relative may be confused on what to put

105
Q

what are Likert scales?

A

measures attitude and how
circle answer they identify with
5 to 7 points

106
Q

Strength of likert scales

A

quantitative data
measures complex attitudes
efficient- can post/email
easy to respond

107
Q

weakness of likert scale

A

only quantitative data
response bias
social desirability

108
Q

what are semantic differential scales?

A

Distinguishes between two extremes, (polar opposites)

109
Q

What are strengths of semantic differential scales?

A

easy to understand the question, quantitative data, several options, quick

110
Q

What are weaknesses of semantic differential scales?

A

not easy to know where to tick
social desirability
subjective to respondents current feelings

111
Q

what is a paper and a journal?

A

Paper, a core study
Journal, A combination of papers 

112
Q

why is report writing important?

A

showcases findings,
allows students/psychologist to replicate study

113
Q

what are the seven sections of report writing?

A

Abstract
introduction
method
results
discussion
references
appendices

114
Q

What is in the abstract?

A

150–200 words
Summary of research
Includes aim method hypothesis, IVDV sample, sampling technique, results and conclusions

115
Q

what is in the introduction?

A

600–700 words
Outlines why the research is being done
Justification
Places study in context to relevant theories and research

116
Q

what is in the method?

A

Sample and sampling method
Procedure
apparatus and material
Relevant justifications

117
Q

what is in the results?

A

Descriptive and inferential statistics
Results in light of context
Draw conclusions about meanings of results

118
Q

what is in the discussion?

A

Explanation of results
Links back to introduction and previous research
Failings and suggestions for further study
Hypothesis accepted and rejected

119
Q

What is in the references?

A

List of all journal, articles, books, sources
protects against plagiarism

120
Q

What is in the appendices?

A

additional information
Raw data
provides context/background

121
Q

How do you use Harvard referencing in journals?

A

surname initials year of publication title of article title of journal, volume of journal page numbers relevance

122
Q

how do you use Harvard referencing in books

A

surname initial year of publication title of book name of publisher town the publisher is located in

123
Q

What is the importance of peer review?

A

ensures research is high-quality and correct
checks ethical issues

124
Q

how are peer reviews carried out?

A

research paper is submitted to a journal for consideration for publication
Editor examines topic and send to expert in that field
critical appraisal of work returned with a recommendations

125
Q

Problems with peer review

A

production bias
file drawer phenomenon- favour, positive results
objectivity
preserving status quo- fit into norm

126
Q

Disadvantage of field experiment

A

more extraneous variables

127
Q

what are the types of time sampling?

A

-predominant activity
-instantaneous scan= if the behaviour was present at the time of recording e.g. 10 seconds, 20 seconds
-one-zero= if it occurred in time period

128
Q

how to draw a pie chart

A

360 divided by total frequency
times by each number

129
Q

what are types of fraudulent research?

A

-plagiarism
-falsification
-fabrication

130
Q

advantages of nominal data?

A

-easy to generate from closed questions so large amounts of data
-easy to find mode

131
Q

advantages of nominal data?

A

-easy to generate from closed questions so large amounts of data
-easy to find mode

132
Q

disadvantage of nominal data?

A

-can only use mode
-cant express degrees of response

133
Q

advantages of ordinal data?

A

-more info than nominal as shows where value is on scale
-can use median and mode
-east to get from rating and likert scales

134
Q

disadvantages of ordinal data?

A

-cant get mean
-p may interpret scale differently so comparisons may be invalid

135
Q

advantages of interval?

A

-most info
-easy to get from closed questions
-mean and measures of spread
-scientific measurements highly reliable (absolute zero)

136
Q

disadvantages of interval?

A

in non scientific measures there is no baseline so zero may mean they don’t have the answer preference

Psychology (20 decks)

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