research methods Flashcards
what are the research steps?
Aim, Hypothesis, Procedure, Research, Conclusion
What is a null hypothesis?
H0
‘no significant difference’
What is an alternative hypothesis?
H1
Directional (1 tailed) - ‘significantly bigger/ smaller’
Non-directional (2 tailed) -‘a significant difference’
Advantages of random sampling?
Everyone gets an equal chance
Unbiased
Disadvantages of random sampling?
Not representative
May not participate once chosen
Advantages of opportunity sampling?
Quick
Cheap
Fast
Disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
unrepresentative
Advantages of self selected sampling?
Easy
Ethical
Full co operation
Disadvantage of self selected sampling?
Unrepresentative
Long time to volunteer
Advantage of snowball sampling?
Quick
Sensitive topics
Disadvantage of snowball sampling?
Unrepresentative (same type of people)
Advantage of stratified sampling?
best represents entire population
Disadvantage of stratified sampling?
Expensive
Time consuming
Advantage of primary data?
Fits specific needs
Up to date
Control over data
Disadvantage of primary data?
Expensive
Time consuming
Not always possible
Advantage of secondary data?
Free
Ease of access
Time saving
New insights
Disadvantage of secondary data?
Not specific to your needs
Lack of control
Biasness
Advantage of quantitative data?
Large scale/samples
Reliable
Patterns and trends
Objective
Disadvantage of quantitative data?
No reasoning
Advantage of qualitative?
More valid
Richer/in depth
Reasoning
Disadvantage of qualitative data?
Small scale
Unreliable
Subjective
What’s internal reliability and what test measures it?
How consistently a method measures within itself
Split-half method
What is external reliability and what test measures it?
How consistently a method measures over time when repeated
Test-re-test method
What is inter-rater reliability?
A degree of consensus amongst raters
What is Internal validity?
The test or measure being used
what is face validity?
at face value does it appear to measure what is meant to

what is criterion validity?
how well findings predict what happens beyond research
what is concurrent validity? 
comparing a new method with an already established one
what is construct validity?
Is it measuring what it is supposed to?
What is external validity?
Refers to issues beyond the investigation
what is ecological validity?
If the method measures behaviour that is representative of naturally occurring behaviour
what is population validity?
If it can be generalised to the whole population
What are the seven ethical issues?
informed consent
right to withdraw
confidentiality
competence
protection from harm
debrief
deception 
What are the levels of measurements?
interval
ordinal
nominal 
what is interval?
Fixed unit with equal distance between points on the safe numerical scale that (can go below zero)
what is ordinal?
Ordered data, no true mathematical value
what is nominal?
named categories, no true mathematical value, basic form of data 
What are the measures of central tendency?
mean median mode 
What are the measures of dispersion and what do they describe?
they describe the spread of data from the mean
normal distribution, positively skewed distribution, negatively skewed distribution 
what does normal distribution look like
Bell shape with symmetry at the new value
What does positively skewed distribution look like?
P shape (mode median mean) measures central tendency increased in value
what does a negatively skewed
distribution look like
measures of central tendency will increase in value, mean median mode
What are the measures of dispersion?
Sample variance
Sample standard deviation
Range
Advantages of the variance?
Takes into account every score
Not distorted by extreme scores
Allows us to compare groups of data
Disadvantages of variance
Calculation isn’t as easy as the range
Not as accurate as standard deviation
Advantages of sample standard deviation
Interprets how useful a score is
uses all numbers
Disadvantage of sample standard deviation?
very sensitive
How to calculate sample variance and standard deviation?
In column 1 find the mean of the scores
In column 2 take away the mean from each score
In column 3 square each result
Add all the square numbers together
Sum of square numbers/N-1
If standard deviation square root
Ignore any negative signs
What are extraneous and confounding variables?
E-unintentional effect on results, can attempt to be controlled
C-unintentional effect on results, cant be controlled
Types of experiments?
Lab
Field
Quasi
Advantages of lab experiments?
Reliable
Disadvantages of lab experiments?
low in ecological validity
demand characteristics
Advantage of field experiments?
High in ecological validity
Advantage of Quasi experiments?
High population validity
Disadvantage of quasi experiments?
Hard to establish cause and effect
What are the experimental designs?
Independent measures-different participants take part in each condition
Repeated measures-same participants take part in each both conditions
Matched pairs- different participants with same characteristic
Advantages of independent measures
no order effects, cheaper, one set of materials
Disadvantages of independent measures
difference between participants
twice as many participants

Advantage of repeated measures
fewer participants
quicker
cheaper
disadvantage of repeated measures
potential order effects
practice/ fatigue effect
advantages of matched pairs
no difference between participants no order effects, cheaper, one set of materials
Disadvantage of matched pairs
Time consuming, not always perfectly matched
type of correlations
Positive
negative
no correlation
what are the correlation coefficients?
-1 to +1
-1 perfect negative
+1 perfect positive
0 no correlation
Strength of correlations
Good pilot study to generate a hypothesis
Research variables that would be unethical to manipulate
Understand relationship between 2 variables
Weakness of correlations?
Doesn’t show causation
can be misleading
tells of nothing about the other variables
what are the stages of observations?
selection
recording
analysis
interpretation
What are the types of observations?
naturalistic
controlled
non participant
participant
covert
overt
advantage of naturalistic observations
Ecological validity, reduced chance of demand characteristics
Disadvantage of naturalistic observations
Not reliable, lack of control and informed consent
Advantage of controlled observation
reliability
lackof extreneous variables
lots of quantitive and qualitative data
disadvantage of non-participant observations
not a great understanding as not participating
demand characteristics (if aware)
advantage of participant observations
can understand firsthand
high validity of findings
disadvantage of participant observation
Demand characteristics
consent issues (if covert)
relies on observers memory

Advantages of covert observation
no demand characteristics
disadvantages of covert observation
No consent
advantages of overt observation
high ecological validity
informed consent
right to withdraw
disadvantages of overt observation
demand characteristics
What are advantages of structured observations?
high in reliability
easier to observe due to the nature
disadvantages of structured observations
Low ecological validity
demand characteristics
advantages of unstructured observations
Natural behaviour, so ecological validity
disadvantages of unstructured observations
might miss behaviours
might misinterpret behaviours
can go off task
How to deal with observer bias
use inter-rater reliability
can be improved by:
pilot study -ensure categories operationalised
train observers
Advantages of time sampling
observation takes place over the greater time period
provides qualitative data
disadvantages of time sampling
behaviours may be missed
little insight into frequency of behaviours
advantages of event sampling
behaviours won’t be missed
quantitive data
disadvantages of event sampling
Time consuming- needs prepared chart
behaviours may be missed if too many events occur at the same time
What are types of self report techniques?
questionnaires, structured interviews, unstructured interviews, semi structured interviews
strength of questionnaires
reliable, quick, cheap confidential so honest
weakness of questionnaires
Low response rate, best fit answers,
no qualitative insights
strengths of structured interviews
Quantitative, reliable, easy to use
disadvantage of structured questionnaires
Limited to fixed questions, interviewer bias, social desirability
advantages of unstructured interview
in-depth information, ethical so uncomfortable questions can be avoided
disadvantage of unstructured interviews
can go off topic, interviewer bias, not reliable
advantage of semi structured interviews
extra questions to confirm information, valid, qualitative data
weakness of semi structured interviews
interviewer bias, time-consuming, hard to interpret
how to write a good question
clarity, make sure the question is clear
bias, no leading questions
analysis
advantage of open questions
qualitative data, ecological validity
disadvantage of open questions
Unreliable
people can lie
time-consuming
difficult to analyse due to subjectiveness

Advantage of closed questions
fast, easy, quantitative data, reliability
disadvantage of closed questions
may not contain participants preferred responses.
Participants may not understand I might want to elaborate
what is a rating scale?
A simple numerical scale
what are advantages of a rating scale?
quantitative data
easy to respond reliable and generalisable
positive plus negative scales can be used(scores reversed, stopping response bias)
What are disadvantages of rating scales
only quantitative data
can’t measure complex variables (attitudes)
response bias
points only relative may be confused on what to put
what are Likert scales?
measures attitude and how
circle answer they identify with
5 to 7 points
Strength of likert scales
quantitative data
measures complex attitudes
efficient- can post/email
easy to respond
weakness of likert scale
only quantitative data
response bias
social desirability
what are semantic differential scales?
Distinguishes between two extremes, (polar opposites)
What are strengths of semantic differential scales?
easy to understand the question, quantitative data, several options, quick
What are weaknesses of semantic differential scales?
not easy to know where to tick
social desirability
subjective to respondents current feelings
what is a paper and a journal?
Paper, a core study
Journal, A combination of papers 
why is report writing important?
showcases findings,
allows students/psychologist to replicate study
what are the seven sections of report writing?
Abstract
introduction
method
results
discussion
references
appendices
What is in the abstract?
150–200 words
Summary of research
Includes aim method hypothesis, IVDV sample, sampling technique, results and conclusions
what is in the introduction?
600–700 words
Outlines why the research is being done
Justification
Places study in context to relevant theories and research
what is in the method?
Sample and sampling method
Procedure
apparatus and material
Relevant justifications
what is in the results?
Descriptive and inferential statistics
Results in light of context
Draw conclusions about meanings of results
what is in the discussion?
Explanation of results
Links back to introduction and previous research
Failings and suggestions for further study
Hypothesis accepted and rejected
What is in the references?
List of all journal, articles, books, sources
protects against plagiarism
What is in the appendices?
additional information
Raw data
provides context/background
How do you use Harvard referencing in journals?
surname initials year of publication title of article title of journal, volume of journal page numbers relevance
how do you use Harvard referencing in books
surname initial year of publication title of book name of publisher town the publisher is located in
What is the importance of peer review?
ensures research is high-quality and correct
checks ethical issues
how are peer reviews carried out?
research paper is submitted to a journal for consideration for publication
Editor examines topic and send to expert in that field
critical appraisal of work returned with a recommendations
Problems with peer review
production bias
file drawer phenomenon- favour, positive results
objectivity
preserving status quo- fit into norm
Disadvantage of field experiment
more extraneous variables
what are the types of time sampling?
-predominant activity
-instantaneous scan= if the behaviour was present at the time of recording e.g. 10 seconds, 20 seconds
-one-zero= if it occurred in time period
how to draw a pie chart
360 divided by total frequency
times by each number
what are types of fraudulent research?
-plagiarism
-falsification
-fabrication
advantages of nominal data?
-easy to generate from closed questions so large amounts of data
-easy to find mode
advantages of nominal data?
-easy to generate from closed questions so large amounts of data
-easy to find mode
disadvantage of nominal data?
-can only use mode
-cant express degrees of response
advantages of ordinal data?
-more info than nominal as shows where value is on scale
-can use median and mode
-east to get from rating and likert scales
disadvantages of ordinal data?
-cant get mean
-p may interpret scale differently so comparisons may be invalid
advantages of interval?
-most info
-easy to get from closed questions
-mean and measures of spread
-scientific measurements highly reliable (absolute zero)
disadvantages of interval?
in non scientific measures there is no baseline so zero may mean they don’t have the answer preference
what is an advantage of using the standard deviation instead of the variance
It’s the square root of the variance
The figure is much more typical of the actual difference
The variance is much bigger and is squared
