Research Flashcards
AAOHN supports research by…
- Encouraging participation
- Providing resources to conduct research
- Publishing research in AAOHN Journal
AAOHN’s Standards of Occupational and Environmental Health Nursing related to research
Standard X
Occupational and environmental health nurse engages in research through activities such as…
- Identifying researchable problems
- Designing and conducting research
- Disseminating research findings
- Writing research grant proposals
- Collaborating with other disciplines
ANA Standards of Clinical Nusing Practice standard related to research
Standard VII
Research roles for associate degree/diploma nurse
- Identifies clinical problems for research
- Assists in the development of the research and data collection activities
- Uses research as a basis for clinical practice
Research roles for baccalaureate nurse:
- Evaluates research for applicability to practice
- Works with skilled researchers to develop research projects
- Uses research to refine and extend the practice
- Discusses research findings with colleagues
Research role of master’s nurse
- Provides expertise related to the research problem, care delivery and the research process
- Analyzes the practice problems within the context of the scientific process
- Collaborates with other disciplines in scientific investigations
- Supports the conduct of research
- Disseminates research findings
- Encourages the integration of research into practice
- Contributes to an environment supportive of nursing research
Research role of doctoral nurse
- Develops and conducts independent and collaborative investigations with other scientists
- Develops methodologies such as survey tools or research protocols for scientific inquiry into phenomena relevant to the practice
- Uses analytical methods and integrates findings to explain and extend scientific knowledge to nursing practice
- Develops and tests interventions to improve worker health and safety
- Acquires research grant support
- Disseminates findings
- Provides leadership for integrating research findings into practices
Purposes of research in occupational and environmental health
- Help identify and solve problems relevant to nursing practice
- Improve the effectiveness of nursing care through scientific inquiry using a systematic process
- Advance the body of knowledge in the occupational and environmental health nursing discipline
To protect all study participants’ rights, the investigator must provide participants with the following:
- Description of study purpose
- Discussion of risks and benefits; informal consent
- Assurance of confidentiality (and of anonymity, where appropriate)
- Specification of a contact person
——- to participate must be obtained from each study participant
Consent
Consent usually covers an explanation of:
- The study
- Procedures used
- Risks
- Invasion of privacy
- Methods used to protect the identity of the participants
Anonymity
Protection of participants in a study such that even the researcher cannot link the participants with the information collected
Confidentiality
Protection of participants in a study such that their identities will not be linked to the information they provide and that individually identifiable information collected will not be divulged
Risks and benefits
A description of any risk involved related to the research such as potential harm from needlestick during blood collection or invasion of privacy
Consent is usually obtained by:
- Written statement from participants
- May be described by the researcher in a cover letter notifying participants to voluntarily return survey forms- return of the survey implies consent
Research is usually approved by an etcs committee commonly referred to as:
An institutional review board (IRB)
Purpose of IRB
Oversee the ethical treatment of study participants and assess the study’s impact on them
It is the IRB’s responsibility to:
- Evaluate and determine if any research-related risks are reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits of research
- Determine if adequate procedures and safeguards are in place to ensure privacy and confidentiality, including informed consent procedures, particularly for vulnerable populations
- Approve or disapprove the research or ask that modifications be made
Steps in the research process
- Formulate the problem
- Review the literature
- Develop a theoretical framework
- Formulate a hypothesis/ questions
- Identify research variables
- Operationalize variables
- Select research design
- Specify population
- Conduct pilot studies
- Select sample
- Collect data
- Organize data for analysis
- Analyze data
- Interpret results
- Communicate findings
Steps in identification of the problem
- The problem that is identified should consist of a situation that needs a solution and that will contribute to improving practice
- The problem is relevant to contemporary nursing practice and is stated clearly and precisely
- Research of the problem will contribute to the body of nursing knowledge
- Research of the problem will explain, describe and predict behaviors, and will test strategies or interventions to modify or improve outcomes
Steps to indicating the significance of the study
- The research problem needs to address the “so what?” question
- The importance of the problem should be explained by describing its critical characteristics, pointing out gaps in the literature and presenting possible solutions
The literature is discussed to help the researcher……
Critically evaluate existing research and provide a context or frame of reference for the study
Literature sources may include:
- Previous studies relevant to clinical or substantive articles
- Conceptual or theoretical understanding
- Methadologic readings
When conducting a literature search the researcher can use several resources:
- Print indexes
- Electronic databases
- Consult with a reference librarian
In any search items that can be used to identify articles that may be valuable
- Key words
- Text words
- Subject headings
Common electronic databases used in occupational and environmental health
- CINAHL
- MEDLINE
- TOXNET
- EMBASE
- NIOSH TIC
- TOXLINE
- HSDB
- RTECS
CINAHL
Cumulative index to nursing and allied health literature
MEDLINE
Medical literature on-line
TOXNET
Toxicology database
EMBASE
Exerpta Medica
NIOSH TIC
NIOSH database
TOXLINE
Toxicology
HSDB
Hazardous substance database
RTECS
Registry of toxic effects of chemical substances
When critiquing a research study, the following should be considered:
- Clarity, logic and understandability of the study
- Currency of the study and its applicability to practice
- Strength of questions and hypotheses and that they are addressed in the analysis
- Theoretical framework, if used
- Appropriate design, sample and interpretation of findings
- Protection of participants rights
- Limitations
Literature should be….
Analyzed and synthesized
The problem statement does the following:
- Introduces the topic
- Explains the importance of the problem
- States what the research intends to study
The problem statements may be grounded within a…
- Theoretical framework
2. Conceptual framework
Theoretical framework
Links and explains the relationships among different theories
Conceptual framework
Building block of theories
Type of study that is not sufficiently developed to have a theoretical or conceptual framework
Descriptive study
Three types of questions:
- Type I research question: expression of a single concept with the stem beginning with “what”. Little or no knowledge about this topic exists
- Type II research question: examines relationships between tow or more concepts or variables
- Type III research question: builds on type I and II questions and examines a causal relationship using an experimental design. Asks why.
Hypotheses require….
A theoretic basis and are used to test an idea
A hypothesis suggests…..
A relationship among two or more variables and is used when the researchers can predict an outcome
Conceptual definitions
Explain interrelationships among concepts
The relationship between self esteem and eating disorders is an example of what type of definition
Conceptual definition
Operational definitions
Guide the implementation of the study
An occupational an environmental health nurse can be defined as a registered nurse who provides for and delivers health and safety services to employees, employee populations and community groups. This is an example of what type of definition?
Operational definition
Designs fall into two major categories:
- Experimental designs
2. Nonexperimental designs
Experimental designs
Are used to test research hypotheses and infer causal relationships
A true experiment requires….
Random assignment of participants, a control group and manipulation of a treatment or intervention
Quasi-experimental designs
Include manipulation of the treatment or intervention; however this design lacks either a control group or random assignment of participants
Preexperimental designs
Manipulate the variable or treatment in only one group (ie no comparison or randomization), and measure the effect
Nonexperimental designs
Are used when the research does not support an experiment (eg survey)
Two categories of nonexperimental studies:
- Descriptive studies
2. Ex post facto
Descriptive studies
Are designed to observe and describe the phenomenon under investigation and are not concerned with relational variables
Ex post facto research
Sometimes called correlational
Examines relationships between variable (that have already occurred) and implies a correlation
Types of variables
- Dependent variable
2. Independent variable
Dependent variable
This is the study variable under investigation
Aka outcome variable
Independent variable
This is the variable that is presumed to have an effect or influence on the dependent variable.
In an experimental design it is the treatment or intervention
What is the dependent variable in the following situation?
Is absenteeism higher among workers who work straight or rotating shifts?
Absenteeism
What is the independent variable in the following situation?
Is absenteeism higher among workers who work straight or rotating shifts?
Shift work
Reliability of an instrument
Is its degree of consistency in measuring responses of the attribute under study
Types of reliability measurements include
- Stability
- Internal consistency
- Equivalence
Stability
Refers to the extent to which the same results are obtained on repeated administrations of the instrument
Aka test-retest
Internal consistency
Wherein all of items included measure a certain attribute, not some other tangential attribute
Equivalence
Wherein the instrument produces the same (or equivalent) results when administered by to different observers or raters
Validity
Refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure
Examples of validity include:
- Content validity
2. Criterion-related validity
Content validity
Is concerned with e shaming adequacy of the content area being measured
Criterion-related validity
Focuses on the relationship or correlations between the instrument and some outside criterion
An instrument to measure self performance would be validated by manager ratings
This is an example of what type of validity?
Criterion-related
The target population includes…
All persons who fit the characteristics the researcher wants to study and to who the results can be generalized
The population sample size needs to be…..
Adequate within the context of the design and problem under investigation
Use the largest sample population to….
Provide for more representation of the population under study
Smaller population samples are….
Less accurate estimates of the population
Effect size
A statistical expression of the relation between two variables or the magnitude of difference between groups
The sample size must be large enough to…..
Satisfy the statistical tests being used
Types of sampling:
- Probability sampling
2. Nonprobability sampling
Probability sampling
All elements or subjects have an equal chance of being included
Types of probability samples include:
- Random
- Stratified random
- Systematic random
- Clusters
Nonprobability sampling
Participant selection is not based on chance (eg participants are volunteers)
Types of nonprobability sampling
- Convenience
- Quota
- Purposive
- Snowball
————- is more representative of the population
Probability sampling
The results of studies that rely on probability sampling are…
Less subject to bias and can be generalized more easily
Data collection
This is the phase of the studies wherein the researcher gathers the data specific to the purpose and questions
Methods for data collection
- Interview
- Questionnaire
- Observation
- Physiologic
- Record review
- Focus group
Interview
A generally structured approach with specific or open ended questions that can be asked face to face or via the telephone
Questionnaire
a written response to survey items, using a structured format that typically uses a scale (eg strongly agree to strongly disagree or a yes/no response) or open ended questions
Observation
Systematic observation of participants and recording of data for later analysis
Physiologic data collection
Methods for measurement biophysiologic data, such as blood and urine samples, electrocardiograms
Record review
Gathering data from charts related to specific indices or criteria under investigation
Focus group
A group interview with participants assembled to answers questions on a given topic
Data analysis
During this phase, the researcher examines the data using statistical approaches, analyzes relationships between the data and the research questions, and forms conclusions and recommendations
Quantitative data
Provide descriptive statistics and comparative analysis about phenomena measured at the nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio levels
The higher the level of measurement of quantitative data the……
More powerful the results
Nominal level of measurement
Lowest level
Is simply the assignment of numbers to classify data into mutually exclusive categories
Ordinal level
Measurement involves the sorting of elements on the basis of their relative standing to each other, yielding a ranking
Interval level
Measurement yields equivalent distance between numerical values on scales
Ratio level measurement
Highest level
Permits numerical calculations or operations and has an absolute zero
Types of data analysis
- Quantitative data
- Qualitative data
- Descriptive analysis
- Inferential analysis
Qualitative data
Provides descriptions about phenomena and help generate hypotheses
Descriptive analysis
Discusses what was found in the study
Common descriptions include:
- Frequency distributions presented in tables or graphs that report the overall summary of group characteristics
- Summary of a group’s characteristics when describing ages, educational levels etc.
Examples of summary of group’s characteristics
- Mean
- Range
- Standard deviation
Mean
Average
Range
Highest score minus the lowest score in a given distribution
Standard deviation
Degree to which score deviate from each other
Inferential analysis
Begins to specify relationships between variables
Steps for interpretation of findings
- Clearly state the answers to research questions, which hypotheses were supported or not supported, and formulate conclusions and recommendations
- Discuss findings within the context of the practice discipline and suggest future research
- State to whom the findings are generalized, paying attention to how the sample was selected
