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Occupational & Environmental Health > Environmental Health > Flashcards

Environmental Health Flashcards

0
Q

Basic nursing competencies in environmental health

A
  1. Mechanisms and pathways of exposure to environmental health hazards
  2. Basic prevention and control strategies
  3. Interdisciplinary nature of effective interventions
  4. Role of research and advocacy
  5. Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of environmentally related diseases
  6. History taking
  7. Exposure assessment
  8. Risk communication
  9. Required reporting
  10. Advocacy
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1
Q

One of the primary determinants of individual and community health

A

Environment

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2
Q

Environmental health comprises…

A

Those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that are determined by physical, chemical, biological, and social and psychologic problems in the environment

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3
Q

Environmental health refers to…

A

The theory and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling and preventing those factors in the environment that can potentially adversely affect the health of present and future generations

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4
Q

Number of chemicals that did not exist before the 1940s that have been introduced into the environment

A

Tens of thousands

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5
Q

Publicly accessible toxicity data are not available for —– of the 3,000 high-production industrial chemicals

A

71%

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6
Q

Of the top 20 environmental pollutants that were reported to the EPA in 1997, nearly 75% were known or suspected ——-

A

Neurotoxins

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7
Q

——– pounds of pesticide products are intentionally and legally released each year in the United States

A

1.2 billion

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8
Q

More than 50% of Americans live in an area that exceeds current national ambient air quality standards for……

A
  1. Ozone
  2. Nitrous oxide
  3. Sulfuric oxide
  4. Particulates
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9
Q

Number of states that have issued one or more health advisories for mercury in their waterways

A

40

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10
Q

Number of states that have issued advisories for mercury for every lake and river within their borders

A

10

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11
Q

Number one cause of air pollution in the United States

A

Mobile sources (motor vehicles)

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12
Q

Substances found in measurable quantities in the nation’s streams

A
  1. Antibiotics
  2. 17-b estradiol
  3. Caffeine
  4. Acetaminophen
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13
Q

Number if Americans who drink water that contains contaminants which exceed one or more of the EPA safe drinking water standards

A

Thirty million

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14
Q

Common contaminants in drinking water

A
  1. Lead
  2. Other heavy metals
  3. Nitrites
  4. Dioxin
  5. Hydrocarbons
  6. Pesticides
  7. Radon
  8. Cyanide
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15
Q

Body systems in laboratory animals affected by combinations of commonly used agricultural chemicals in levels typically found in groundwater

A
  1. Immune system
  2. Endocrine system
  3. Neurological system
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16
Q

Thirty seven pesticides registered for use on food are…

A

Neurotoxic organophosphates

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17
Q

Radon may be responsible for 20% of ——— among non smokers

A

Lung cancers

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18
Q

Examples of endocrine disrupters

A
  1. Plasticizers
  2. Polychlorinated biphenyls
  3. Many pesticides
  4. Dioxins
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19
Q

Endocrine disrupters appear in —– of the population

A

95%

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20
Q

Dioxins mimic

A

Estrogens

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21
Q

Which diseases severity is increased by poor indoor and outdoor air quality

A

Asthma

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22
Q

Host factors that determine the relationship between environment and health

A
  1. Age
  2. Gender
  3. Genetic makeup
  4. Underlying diseases
  5. Dose-response factors
  6. Length of time exposed
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23
Q

Environmental health is based on what type of model?

A

Public health model with a emphasis on prevention

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24
Q

Preventive interventions in environmental health include:

A
  1. Pollution prevention
  2. Product design
  3. Engineering controls
  4. Purchasing choice
  5. Eduction
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25
Q

US environmental standards are based on health risks to…

A
  1. Healthy
  2. 70kg (154lb)
  3. White
  4. Male
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26
Q

Environmental standards may not provide sufficient protection to:

A
  1. Pregnant women and fetuses
  2. Young children
  3. Frail and elderly
  4. Immunocompromised
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27
Q

Synthetic chemicals can be found in…

A
  1. Food
  2. Air
  3. Soil
  4. Water
  5. Workplaces
  6. Schools
  7. Homes
  8. Communities
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28
Q

Synthetic chemicals can be found within ——– in measurable amounts

A

Human bodies

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29
Q

There is limited information regarding ————- associated with many of the synthetic chemicals in our environment

A

Human health effects

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30
Q

Neurotoxins account for more than ——– pounds released into air, water and land

A

A billion

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31
Q

In 1998 Consumer Reports tested leading-brand beef baby food and measured….

A

Dioxin levels the exceeded the EPA allowable quantities by 100 times

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32
Q

Several pesticides and herbicides have been linked to…..

A

Leukemia

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33
Q

Exposure to endocrine disrupters very early in life can have the potential to disrupt critical endocrine pathways with the possibility of causing adverse effects to…

A
  1. Reproductive systems
  2. Neurologic systems
  3. Immunologic systems
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34
Q

Risks that occur in environments where people live, work, play and learn

A
  1. Chemical
  2. Biologic
  3. Radiologic
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35
Q

Chemical and radiologic exposures can be…..

A

Cumulative

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36
Q

Occupational and environmental health nurses must assess a person’s —– exposure to environmental risks in order to understand and address potential health threats

A

Total

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37
Q

Very specific gestational ages can be associated with….

A

Exquisite vulnerability to the effects of certain toxic chemicals

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38
Q

Opportunities for informed decision are created by…

A

Information via labeling and other forms of “right to know”

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39
Q

Potential environmental exposures and environmentally related diseases can be assessed….

A
  1. Individually

2. Community wide basis

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40
Q

Individual environmental health assessments should take into account all potential exposures including….

A
  1. Home
  2. Workplace
  3. School
  4. Community
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41
Q

National Library of Medicine’s resource that provides easily accessible, peer reviewed information about the potential health hazards in our environments

A

ToxTown

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42
Q

ToxTown covers a broad range of information about health risks associated with…

A
  1. Factories
  2. Farms
  3. Homes
  4. Offices
  5. Schools
  6. Drinking water
  7. Recreational water
  8. Pests
  9. Vehicles
  10. Hazardous waste sites
  11. Airplanes
  12. Construction
  13. EMFs (electric and magnetic fields)
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43
Q

Within ToxTown there is a database of likely chemical exposures associated with….

A

An extensive list of specific job categories

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44
Q

Household product information found on www.household.nlm.nih.gov

A
  1. Auto products
  2. Landscape/yard
  3. Home maintenance
  4. Pet care
  5. Arts and crafts
  6. Personal care
  7. Cleaning products
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45
Q

———- provides high quality information regarding children’s exposures; their e-house website specifically provides information about home related environmental health risks

A

The Children’s Health and Environment Coalition

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46
Q

The EPA website provides…

A

A range of environmental exposure information

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47
Q

EnvironFacts

A

EPA website that provides geographically related information

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48
Q

EnviroMapper

A

EPA website provides air, water and hazardous waste site information by location/region

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49
Q

The Children’s Environmental Health Network

A

Website that has developed a health assessment tool for children

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50
Q

EnviRN

A
  • University of Maryland’s website

- Has a home assessment survey that includes information about the health implications of environmental exposures

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51
Q

Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

A
  • agency within the CDC

- created ToxFacts

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52
Q

ToxFacts

A

Provides excellent toxicological information on chemicals that are commonly associated with environmental health risks

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53
Q

Community environmental health assessments identify potential exposures in

A
  1. Water (including drinking water)
  2. Air (including indoor air)
  3. Dust (including lead based paint particles)
  4. Soil (including exposures from current and previous land use)
  5. Radiation (ionizing and nonionizing)
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54
Q

Environmental assessments may depend on extrapolating from…

A

Aggregate national, statewide, county or metropolitan exposure data

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55
Q

Geographic information system (GIS)

A
  • A method for assessing community risks to environmental exposures and potential health problems
  • consists of computerized mapping of graphically related data
  • environmental and exposure data can be entered and evaluated for geographic relationships
  • data can be presented in map form
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56
Q

Sources of more information on GIS

A
  1. www.gisportal.com
  2. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
  3. Geography departments in universities
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57
Q

Essential competences for environmental health assessments

A

Knowledge of:

  1. Federal, state and local health and environmental statues and regulations
  2. Practices regarding what data are collected and how they are accessed
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58
Q

Principle sciences used to determine the relationship between environmental exposures and health outcomes

A

Epidemiology and toxicology

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59
Q

Environmental epidemiology

A

Uses epidemiologic techniques to examine environmental exposures

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60
Q

Study design of choice in environmental health

A

Analytical studies (cohort and case control)

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61
Q

Type of study rarely done in environmental health

A

Experimental

Because it is unethical to intentionally expose individuals or communities to environmental hazards

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62
Q

Cluster investigations are often used to…

A

Respond to community concerns about an excess of cancer or birth defects

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63
Q

Common results of cluster investigations

A

Negative or equivocal results

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64
Q

Cluster investigations are most convincing when….

A

The disease in question is rare and very specific for the putative etiologic exposure

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65
Q

Example of a disease that a cluster investigation would be useful

A

Asbestos causing mesothelioma

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66
Q

Limitations of environmental epidemiology

A
  1. Exposures often poorly defined and measured
  2. A very limited understanding of mixed exposures
  3. Relatively small number of individuals constitute the study populations
  4. Lack of understanding about variability in the susceptibility of segments of the populations
  5. Long latency between many environmental exposures and the evidence of chronic disease
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67
Q

Most common type of environmental exposure

A

Mixed exposure

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68
Q

Why is small study population a limitation of environmental epidemiology

A

Small study populations yield limited statistical power to detect an association between exposures of concern and health effects

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69
Q

Segments of population that could have variable susceptibility rates

A
  1. The poor
  2. Children
  3. Elderly
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70
Q

Why is lack of understanding about variability of susceptibility in a population a limitation of environmental epidemiology

A

It limits the ability to compare findings across studies

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71
Q

Environmental toxicology

A

The science that examines the toxic effects of agents in the environment

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72
Q

Toxicology

A

The science that investigates the adverse affects of chemicals on health

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73
Q

Toxicology is similar to…

A

Pharmacology

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74
Q

The effects of hazardous chemicals can be…

A
  1. Immediate (acute)
  2. Long term
  3. Present after a latency period
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75
Q

Effect of hazardous chemicals often associated with presentation after a latency period

A

Cancer

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76
Q

Host factors that must be considered when looking at hazardous chemicals

A
  1. Age
  2. Sex
  3. Genetics
  4. Weight
  5. Drugs that a person may be taking
  6. Pregnancy status
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77
Q

Host factors may affect….

A

The therapeutic or toxic effect of a drug or chemical

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78
Q

Hazardous chemical exposures are often….

A

Involuntary

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79
Q

Pharmacology

A

Scientific study of the origin, nature, chemistry, effects and use of drugs

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80
Q

Toxicology

A

Science that investigates the adverse effects of chemicals on health

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81
Q

Definition of dose in pharmacology

A

Refers to the amount of a drug absorbed from an administration

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82
Q

Definition of dose in toxicology

A

Refers to the amount of a chemical absorbed into the body from a chemical exposure

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83
Q

Definition of administration in pharmacology

A

A drug can be administered:

  1. One time
  2. Short term
  3. Long term
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84
Q

Definition of exposure in toxicology

A

The actual contact that a person has with a chemical

Can be:

  1. One time
  2. Short term
  3. Long term
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85
Q

Dose-response curve in pharmacology

A

Graphically represents the relationship between the dose of a drug and the response elicited

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86
Q

Dose-response curve in toxicology

A

Describes the relationship of the body’s response to different amounts of an agent such as a drug or toxin

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87
Q

Routes of administration in pharmacology

A
  1. Oral
  2. Intramuscular
  3. Intravenous
  4. Subcutaneous
  5. Dermal
  6. Topical
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88
Q

Routes of entry in toxicology

A
  1. Ingestion
  2. Inhalation
  3. Dermal absorption
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89
Q

In pharmacology with drugs there are ——- (desirable effects) and —– (undesirable effects)

A

Therapeutic responses

Side effects

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90
Q

In toxicology only —– effects are of concern

A

Toxic

91
Q

Toxicity

A

The ability of a chemical to damage an organ system, disrupt a biochemical process or disturb an enzyme system

92
Q

In pharmacology beyond the therapeutic dose a drug…..

A

May become toxic

93
Q

Potency in pharmacology

A

Refers to the relative amount of a drug required to produce the desired response

94
Q

Potency in toxicology

A

Refers to the relative amount of a toxic chemical it takes to elicit a toxic effect compared with other chemicals

95
Q

In pharmacology examples of biologic monitoring and the drugs it is done for

A
  1. Anticoagulants (warfarin) and clotting time

2. Digoxin and actual drug levels

96
Q

In toxicology examples of biologic monitoring and the toxic exposures it is done for

A
  1. Lead and Blood lead levels

2. Environmental tobacco smoke and metabolites of chemicals such as cotinines

97
Q

US regulatory process for drugs includes….

A

Several stages of animal and human testing

98
Q

US regulatory process for hazardous chemicals that are not food or drugs….

A

Requires virtually no original testing

99
Q

How many chemicals in widespread use today-including those regularly found in human tissue, including umbilical cord blood and amniotic fluid- have been submitted to any testing to determine possible neurologic, reproductive or developmental impacts?

A

Few

100
Q

European Union chemical policy

A

REACH

101
Q

REACH

A

EU comprehensive chemical policy that requires more pre-market testing and disclosure than in the US

R: registration
E: evaluation and
A: authorization of
CH: chemicals

102
Q

Examples of unique risks that children have related to environmental exposures

A
  1. Different metabolic and physiologic processes from adults
  2. Normal exploratory behavior
  3. Spend 90% of day in a variety of indoor environments
  4. Children born today will cumulatively have more exposures to toxic chemicals than children born previously
  5. Exposure to toxins can cause permanent damage
  6. Exposure to toxins in diet is significant
103
Q

Children have higher rates of absorption of toxic materials than adults via the following routes

A
  1. Skin
  2. Respiratory
  3. Gastrointestinal
104
Q

What types of normal exploratory cause children to have increased opportunities to ingest toxins?

A
  1. Hand to mouth activity

2. Crawling

105
Q

Main indoor environments where children spend 90% of their time on developed countries

A
  1. Homes
  2. Day care centers
  3. Schools
  4. Motor vehicles
  5. Other
106
Q

Chemicals and pollutants often present in indoor environments

A
  1. Tobacco smoke
  2. Building materials
  3. Consumer products
  4. Pets
  5. Insects and other pests
  6. Mold
  7. Inadequately ventilated cooking and heating devices
  8. Influx of outdoor air pollutants
107
Q

The concentration of indoor pollutants can be ——- than outdoor pollutants

A

4 to 10 times more

108
Q

Exposure to environmental toxins can disrupt and cause permanent damage to the following developing systems:

A
  1. Nervous
  2. Immune
  3. Respiratory
109
Q

Main source of child’s exposure to toxic chemicals through their diet

A
  1. Pesticide residues on apples and other fruits/vegetables
  2. Lead in drinking water
  3. Polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins in breast milk
110
Q

—– have not been routinely included in environmental risk assessment

A

Children

111
Q

Most environmental health regulations are based on studies on ———-

A

Adult males

112
Q

———— can create varying degrees of vulnerability to toxic chemicals, even in healthy humans

A

Humans developmental stages

113
Q

Reproductive disorders that may result from exposure to toxic substances

A
  1. Male and female infertility
  2. Menstrual irregularities
  3. Spontaneous abortion or fetal loss
  4. Major and minor birth defects
  5. Developmental abnormalities
114
Q

—— US children live within four miles of a toxic waste dump

A

10 million

115
Q

Living close to a toxic waste dump creates increased potential for hazardous chemical exposures via….

A
  1. Air
  2. Drinking water
  3. Direct contact
116
Q

—— children in the US exceed currently acceptable levels of lead in their blood

A

One million

117
Q

Acceptable blood lead level for child

A

10 microliters/dl or less

118
Q

Lead exposure is associated with…

A
  1. Behavioral effects (violent behavior)

2. Cognitive effects

119
Q

Environmental tobacco smoke is responsible for —— lost school days by children

A

7 million

120
Q

Epidemiologic studies suggest a relationship between nitrates in drinking water and ——-

A

Juvenile diabetes

121
Q

—— of the children in Arkansas who live near an herbicide manufacturing plant had herbicide residues in their urine

A

20%

122
Q

——– is the number one reason that children miss school and are hospitalized in the US

A

Asthma

123
Q

Over ——– children under the age of 18 are affected by asthma in the US

A

5 million

124
Q

Indoor triggers for asthma include:

A
  1. Second hand smoke
  2. Dust mites
  3. Cockroach feces and exoskeleton dust
  4. Mold
  5. Pets
125
Q

Outdoor triggers for asthma include:

A
  1. Ozone
  2. Nitrogen oxides
  3. Diesel exhaust
  4. Pollen
126
Q

Children can be exposed directly by contact to ——– in play structures, decks and other items

A

Arsenic treated (chromated copper arsenate) wood (ie treated wood or pressure treated wood)

127
Q

Arsenic from treated wood can leach…..

A

Into groundwater that may be a source of drinking water

128
Q

——— are more sensitive to the effects of ozone

A

Developing lungs

129
Q

Pollutants in some fish can cause…..

A

Developmental problems

130
Q

Toxic chemicals that are know. To affect the brain and can play a role in brain disorders

A
  1. Lead
  2. Mercury
  3. Manganese
  4. PCBs
  5. Tobacco smoke and nicotine
  6. Bisphenol A
  7. Perchlorate
  8. Solvents
131
Q

Lead exposures during infancy and childhood can cause:

A
  1. Attention problems
  2. Hyperactivity
  3. Impulsive behavior
  4. Reduced IQ
  5. Poor school performance
  6. Aggression
  7. Delinquent behavior
132
Q

Mercury crosses the placenta

A

True

133
Q

Mercury exposure in pregnant women can impair…. of unborn child

A
  1. IQ
  2. Language development
  3. Visual-spatial skills
  4. Memory
  5. Attention
134
Q

The “safe” level of mercury continues to —– the more mercury is studied

A

Drop

135
Q

High levels of manganese in hair is associated with…..

A

ADHD

136
Q

Laboratory experiments with animals link manganese with……

A
  1. Hyperactivity

2. Parkinson’s disease

137
Q

PCBs

A

Polychlorinated biphenyls

138
Q

PCBs, especially in fatty tissue can….

A
  1. Impair reflexes and IQ
  2. Delay mental development and development of motor skills
  3. Associated with hyperactivity
139
Q

One of the best studied agents for its effects on the developing brain

A

Tobacco smoke and nicotine

140
Q

Children born to women who smoke during pregnancy are at risk for….

A
  1. IQ deficits
  2. Learning disorders
  3. Attention deficits
141
Q

Bisphenol A effects on brain

A

Alters the expression of genes that are important for long term memory formation and for early brain development

142
Q

Perchlorate

A

A rocket fuel that now contaminate drinking water in many communities in the western United States

143
Q

Effects of perchlorate

A

Interferes with thyroid hormone control of brain development in mice

144
Q

Toluene effects

A

Solvent that causes learning, speech and motor skill problems in children

145
Q

Environmental justice

A

Refers to the fair treatment for people of all races, cultures, incomes, regarding the development of environmental, laws, regulations and policies

146
Q

The environmental health status that poor communities experience is compounded by effects of:

A
  1. Poor housing
  2. Poor nutrition
  3. Poor access to healthcare
  4. Unemployment
  5. Underemployment
  6. Employment in the most hazardous jobs
147
Q

Environmental risk burden is generally greater for…

A

Minorities and those who are economically disadvantaged

148
Q

Why is the environmental risk burden get ally greater for minorities and those who are economically disadvantaged?

A

They are exposed to a greater number and intensity of environmental pollutants in food, air, water, homes and workplaces

149
Q

The National Health and Nutrition Exam Study results indicate….

A

Minority women have higher levels of toxic chemicals in their bodies than do white women

150
Q

Information sharing may be less effective in economically disadvantaged communities as a function of….

A

Language and literacy issues including the challenge of understanding technical language in warning signs and other right to know material

151
Q

Indicators of increased environmental risk burden include:

A
  1. Proximity to hazardous waste sites, polluting industries and incinerators
  2. Substandard housing
152
Q

What substandard housing conditions place people at increased environmental risk?

A
  1. Friable asbestos
  2. Deteriorating lead paint
  3. Yards with contaminated soil
  4. Pests
  5. Pesticides
  6. Mold
153
Q

Federal mandates to address environmental justice include:

A
  1. Environmental Justice Act (1993)

2. Executive Order 12898 (1994): Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations

154
Q

The passage of federal legislation to address environmental justice resulted in:

A

The development of policies to more comprehensively reduce the incidence of environmental inequality by mandating that every federal agency act in a manner to address and prevent environmental illnesses and injuries

155
Q

National Environmental Justice Advisory Council

A
  • created in 1994
  • created as a federal advisory committee to the EPA to convene community, governmental and business constituents to assess environmental justice issues and make recommendations to the Administrator of the EPA
156
Q

—— and ——– are interrelated concepts of critical importance to the field of environmental health and to occupational and environmental health nurses

A

Advocacy

Social justice

157
Q

Case advocacy

A

Refers to the process of advocating for individual clients and families to solve problems and secure needed services

158
Q

Class advocacy

A

Is aimed at changing policy, institutional systems, and norms, laws or patterns of resource allocation to improve the health of the group or community

159
Q

Collaborative approaches in class advocacy

A

Are characterized as citizens and authorities working collaboratively to reach an agreed-upon goal

160
Q

Example of collaborative approaches

A

Membership on planning and advisory committees

161
Q

Campaigning approaches in class advocacy

A

Require that citizens or professionals work singly or collectively to persuade authorities (lawmakers and regulators) that new problem definitions and solutions are needed

162
Q

Examples if campaigning approaches

A

Lobbying

163
Q

Contest strategies in class advocacy

A

Involve citizens organizing to force attention to community problems that they feel are being ignored or mishandled by authorities

164
Q

Examples of contest strategies

A

Protest marches

165
Q

Examples of legal remedies in class advocacy

A

Class action lawsuits

166
Q

Types of class advocacy

A
  1. Collaborative approaches
  2. Campaigning approaches
  3. Contest strategies
  4. Legal remedies
167
Q

—— are often primary health care providers in poor and disenfranchised communities

A

Nurses

168
Q

Risk

A

The probability of undesirable effects (or unhealthy outcomes) arising from exposure to hazard

169
Q

Strategies for dealing with environmental risks:

A
  1. Risk assessment
  2. Risk management
  3. Risk communication
170
Q

Risk assessment

A

Refers to the use of available information to evaluate and eliminate exposure to a substance and the resulting adverse health effects

171
Q

Formal risk assessment is used by almost all….

A

Federal regulatory agencies

172
Q

Formal risk assessment should be distinguished from ———- to identify health risks

A

Nursing assessments

173
Q

Risk assessment is…..

A

Formulaic

174
Q

Risk assessment virtually always depends on estimates for each of the following steps:

A
  1. Hazard identification
  2. Dose-response evaluation
  3. Exposure assessment
  4. Risk characterization
175
Q

Hazard identification

A

Relies on toxicologic and epidemiologic studies of the potential of a substance to cause harm

176
Q

Dose-response evaluation

A

Measures whether the harm increases with increasing doses of the substances

177
Q

Exposure assessment

A

Involves measuring the amount of the chemical or other harmful substance to which a population is exposed with a goal of estimating the dose

178
Q

Risk characterization

A

Involves eliminating the public or environmental impact or problem

179
Q

Estimations of risk can be widely diverse, depending on…..

A

Who is doing the risk assessment

180
Q

The context in which a risk assessment is typically used is in…..

A

Policy and regulatory development

181
Q

During the time when a risk assessment is used in policy and regulatory development —————- are likely to be equally important variables influencing the final policy or standard

A

Political and economic interests

182
Q

Risk management

A

The process of evaluating alternative strategies for reducing risk and prioritizing or selecting among them

183
Q

Risk management strategies often involve….

A

Policy development

184
Q

Types of risk management strategies

A
  1. Regulatory
  2. Legislative
  3. Voluntary
185
Q

Levels targeted by risk management strategies

A
  1. Company-institutional level
  2. Local government
  3. State government
  4. National government
  5. International
186
Q

Example of international level risk management strategy

A

Kyoto agreement

187
Q

The Kyoto Agreement

A
  • aka Kyoto Protocols

- framework laid down by 38 countries to prevent global warming

188
Q

Kyoto Agreement main proposal

A

In 1997, the nations joining in the treaty agreed to reduce their emission of greenhouse gases by 2012

189
Q

Why are greenhouse gases related to global warming?

A

Greenhouse gases trap heat within our planet’s atmosphere and cause an increase in global temperatures

190
Q

Average emission cuts by the Kyoto Agreement are calculated to be about….

A

5.2%

191
Q

Under the United Nations Convention on Climate Change, governments…

A
  1. Gather and share information on greenhouse gas emissions, national policies and best practices
  2. Launch national strategies for addressing greenhouse emissions and adapting to expected impacts, including the provision of financial and technological support to developing countries
  3. Cooperate in preparing for adapting to the impacts of climate change
192
Q

The reduction of emissions is grouped into two classes of greenhouse gases:

A
  1. Relates to carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane

2. Relates to hydroflurocarbon gases, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride

193
Q

Reductions made to carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane are compared to emission levels from what year?

A

1990

194
Q

Reductions made to hydroflurocarbon gases, perfluorocarbons, and sulphur hexafluoride are compared to emissions from what year?

A

1995

195
Q

True or false: The United States is among the signatories of the Kyoto Agreement

A

False

196
Q

———– can be a critical took in risk management

A

Environmental engineering

197
Q

Engineering strategies to control exposure to environmental hazards are similar to……

A

Industrial hygiene hierarchy of controls

198
Q

Environmental strategies to control exposure to environmental hazards include…..

A

Elimination of the exposure through substitution of products or processes

199
Q

Examples of environmental strategies to control exposure to environmental hazards

A
  1. Reduction of pollution at its source
  2. Waste minimization
  3. Reuse, recycling
  4. Emissions control
  5. Waste cleanup
200
Q

Risk management strategies should always include involvement of….

A

All stakeholders regarding the nature of risk and the costs and benefits of proposed risk-management options

201
Q

——- and ——- are vehicles to successful risk management

A

Coalition building

Community action

202
Q

———- may be used to manage risk in combination with other strategies

A

Legal remedies

203
Q

———— should always “be at the table” regarding decisions to are being made about their risks

A

Community members

204
Q

Precautionary Principle

A

Assumes that where there are possible threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent risks

205
Q

In 2003, the ANA adopted the ————, based in the ————, as the primary tenet on which they will base their environmental health policy/ advocacy work

A

Precautionary Approach

Precautionary Principle

206
Q

Precautionary Principle is based on the following statement:

A

When an activity raises threats of harm to the environment or human health, precautionary measures should be take. Even if dorm cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically

207
Q

All statements of the Precautionary Principle contain a version of this formula:

A

When the health of humans and the environment is at stake, it may not be necessary to wait for scientific certainty to take protective action

208
Q

The Precautionary Principle is based on the common sense idea behind many adages:

A
  1. Be careful
  2. Better safe than sorry
  3. Look before you leap
  4. First do no harm
209
Q

“Precautionary Principle” is a translation of:

A

The German Vorsorgeprinzip

Vorsorge literally means forecaring

210
Q

The ethical assumption behind the Precautionary Principle is…..

A

Humans are responsible to protect, preserve and restore the global ecosystems on which all life, including our own, depends

211
Q

Any action that contributes to preventing hr, to humans and the environment, learning more about the consequences of actions, and acting appropriately is…

A

Precautionary

212
Q

Precaution is best linked to the following methods:

A
  1. Exploring alternatives to possibly harmful actions, especially clean technologies that eliminate waste and toxic substances
  2. Placing the burden of proof on proponents of an activity rather than on victims or potential victims of the activity
  3. Setting and working towards goals that protect personal health and the environment
  4. Bringing democracy and transparency to decisions affecting health and the environment
213
Q

In 2003 the ANA adopted the “Precautionary Approach” as a guiding tenet for….

A

Their environmental health policy and advocacy work

214
Q

The ANA’s Precautionary Approach is based on….

A

The Wingspread definition of the Precautionary Principle

215
Q

Risk communication

A

In the context of environmental health, is the art of communicating about the potential health risks associated with environmental exposures

216
Q

Four elements to consider in risk communication

A
  1. The message
  2. The messenger
  3. The audience
  4. The context
217
Q

Considerations related to message include:

A
  1. Environmental health risks are often hard to define
  2. Exposures may be difficult to characterize
  3. The exposed population can be very diverse in age and many other important variables
  4. Exposures will always include multiple chemicals, whereas most scientific investigation is primarily about individual chemicals and rarely chemical mixtures
  5. Sometimes scientific evidence is inconclusive or nonexistent
218
Q

Characteristics of the successful messenger include:

A
  1. The messenger must be perceived as trusted and credible.

2. The messenger must be prepared to communicate with empathy and care when the message evokes hostile emotions

219
Q

Characteristics of the audience include:

A
  1. Audiences bring individual biases to any forum in which environmental health risks must be discussed
  2. Audience’s distrust of the messenger may be based on their feelings about whom the messenger represents (eg government, industry, an environmental organization)
  3. An audience may trust or distrust a messenger based on his or her age, race, sex
220
Q

Considerations related to context are as follows:

A
  1. Risk communication does not occur in a vacuum; it often occurs when there has been a perceived environmental health threat such as a potentially contaminated water supply, an accidental release of hazardous chemicals,or a newly identified hazardous waste site adjacent to a daycare center
  2. The conditions and context will influence the audience’s ability to listen and trust
  3. The media can play an important part in a community’s understanding and biases regarding environmental risk
221
Q

Risk communication is affected by…

A

Risk perception

222
Q

Factors that affect perceptions of risk as less risky

A
  1. Voluntary
  2. Familiar
  3. Controllable
  4. Controlled by self
  5. Not memorable
  6. Not dread
  7. Chronic
  8. Diffuse in time and space
  9. Not fatal
  10. Immediate
  11. Natural
  12. Individual mitigation possible
  13. Detectable
223
Q

Factors that affect perceptions of risk as more risky

A
  1. Involuntary
  2. Unfamiliar
  3. Uncontrollable
  4. Controlled by others
  5. Memorable
  6. Dread
  7. Acute
  8. Focused in time and space
  9. Fatal
  10. Delayed
  11. Artificial
  12. Individual mitigation impossible
  13. Undetectable
224
Q

The EPA has created a list of 7 Cardinal Rules for Risk Communication

A
  1. Accept and involve the public as a legitimate partner
  2. Plan carefully and evaluate your efforts
  3. Listen to your audience
  4. Be honest, frank and open
  5. Coordinate and collaborate with other credible sources
  6. Meet the needs of the press
  7. Speak clearly and with compassion

Occupational & Environmental Health (49 decks)

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