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Occupational & Environmental Health > Occupational And Environmental Health Nursing: An Overview > Flashcards

Occupational And Environmental Health Nursing: An Overview Flashcards

0
Q

Primary objectives of occupational health and safety practice

A
  1. Prevent work related illness and injuries
  2. Evaluating and treating work related illness or injury
  3. Promoting health and safety behaviors
  4. Implementing hazard prevention and abatement interventions
  5. Advocating organizational attention to environmental concerns
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1
Q

Mission of occupational health and safet

A

To assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions

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2
Q

Occupational health discipline collaborations

A
  1. Occupational and environmental health nurses
  2. Occupational physicians
  3. Industrial hygienists
  4. Safety engineers
  5. Epidemiologists
  6. Toxicologists
  7. Industrial engineers
  8. Ergonomists
  9. Health educators
  10. Occupational and physical therapists
  11. Vocational rehabilitation specialists
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3
Q

Dimensions of workplace that affect worker health and safety

A
  1. Social
  2. Cultural
  3. Political
  4. Economic
  5. Organizational
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4
Q

Social components of workplace

A
  1. Meaning of work
  2. Social milieu of worker, including baseline health
  3. Structure of work
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5
Q

Cultural components of workplace

A
  1. Beliefs
  2. Attitudes
  3. Values

All as related to work

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6
Q

Economic components of workplace

A
  1. Levels of unemployment
  2. Competition
  3. Wage regulation
  4. Overall health of local economy
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7
Q

Organizational components of workplace

A
  1. Corporate mission, philosophy and values
  2. Financial and structural viability of organization
  3. Job security issues
  4. Production structure and requirements
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8
Q

Groups affected by occupational health and safety programs

A
  1. Worker
  2. Workers family and significant others
  3. Community
  4. Larger society
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9
Q

The concept and value of work is fundamental to every…

A
  1. Nation
  2. Race
  3. Culture
  4. Time
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10
Q

Earliest reference to occupational health was made by….

A

Hippocrates

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11
Q

Hippocrates and occupational health

A
  • recognized clusters of specific disease that were more prevalent in craftsmen
  • 400 bc
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12
Q

Plinny the Elder

A
  • 23-79 ad

- observed ancient miners wearing protective breathing devices to avoid inhaling toxic dusts and vapors

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13
Q

Much work in the Middle Ages occurred

A

In homes and small shops

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14
Q

Profitable work in the Middle Ages

A
  • consisted primarily of crafts and arts
  • used various metals, chemicals and minerals
  • was accompanied by observed adverse health effects
  • increased competition resulted in increased production and escalating work hazards
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15
Q

Location of manufacturing in the Middle Ages

A
  • most was conducted in rural homes

- some occurred in guild shops in towns

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16
Q

Notable commentaries on occupational health and safety in the pre-industrial era

A
  1. Georgius Agricola
  2. Paracelsus
  3. Bernardino Ramazzini
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17
Q

Georgius Agricola

A
  • 1494-1555

- described the ailments of miners

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18
Q

Ailments of miners described by Georgius Agricola

A

Joint, lung and eye problems

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19
Q

Paracelsus

A
  • 1493-1541
  • identified acute and chronic health effects in craftsmen exposed to metal smelting fumes
  • articulated the principle paradigm of toxicology, the dose/response ratio
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20
Q

Bernardino Ramazzini

A
  • 1633-1714
  • father of occupational medicine
  • published De Morbis Artifactum Diatriba (The Diseases of Workmen)
  • encouraged physicians to inquire into their patients’ occupations as part of their assessments
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21
Q

De Morbis Artifactum Diatriba (The Disease of Workmen)

A
  • Ramazzini
  • 1713
  • described more than 100 different trade occupations, their associated hazards, and various methods of protection for tradespeople
  • included protective clothing, adequate ventilation and proper working posture
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22
Q

Major shift in working conditions occurred during…

A

The Industrial Revolution

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23
Q

Shifts in working conditions during the Industrial Revolution

A
  1. Agrarian or home based hand manufacturing to urban based industrial processes
  2. Power driven machinery introduced
  3. Mass factory production began in England in 1718
  4. Machine driven jobs became specialized
  5. Work became monotonous
  6. Economic and social impact of work related injury, illness and death became evident
  7. High rates of factory workers affected
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24
Q

American workers during the Industrial Revolution

A
  1. Health and safety profoundly affected
  2. Economic focus shifted from agriculture to industry
  3. Millions flocked to urban industrial centers
  4. Company owned housing districts
  5. Massive exploitation of women, children and non-English speaking immigrants
  6. Child labor, indentured servitude and slavery were routine
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25
Q

Characteristics of company owned housing districts

A
  1. Overcrowded
  2. Unsanitary
  3. Centers of poverty and communicable disease
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26
Q

Trends during the American Industrial Revolution

A
  1. Division of labor
  2. Ownership of the means of production
  3. Capitalism
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27
Q

Workplace mindset during the Industrial Revolution

A
  1. Accidents and workplace deaths are inevitable and acceptable consequences of progress
  2. Profit and property rights above human rights
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28
Q

Working conditions during the Industrial Revolution

A
  • abysmal
  • machines largely without protective devices
  • accidental death rates were high
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29
Q

Occupational health and safety during the Industrial Revolution

A
  1. Responsibility for work related injuries and illnesses was placed in the worker
  2. Services focused on pre-employment physical examinations
  3. Prevention strategies aimed at altering worker behavior
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30
Q

Primary causes of accidents idenfied during the Industrial Revolution

A
  1. Lack of English language skills
  2. Inexperience
  3. Worker carelessness
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31
Q

Alice Hamilton

A
  • 1869-1970
  • matriarch if American occupational health
  • first American physician to devote life’s work to industrial health
  • studied and documented adverse human effects associated with occupational exposure to lead, arsenic, carbon monoxide and solvents
  • published Industrial Poisons in the United States (1925) and Exploring Dangerous Trades (1943)
  • editor of The Journal of Industrial Hygiene
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32
Q

Government agencies and legislation focusing on workplace health and safety emerged during….

A

The industrial revolution

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33
Q

Formal workplace regulation began…

A
  • in the textile manufacturing sector

- England

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34
Q

Eight Factory Acts were passed:

A

Between 1802 and 1891

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35
Q

Factory Acts aimed at improving conditions for laborers including:

A
  1. Limiting working hours to 12 hours daily
  2. Raising minimal age limit for working children from 10 to 11
  3. Prohibited employment of pregnant women within one month of delivery
  4. Required that workplace injuries and deaths be reported to a surgeon who was to investigate the cause and report result to factory inspector
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36
Q

First factory inspection department in the US

A

Massachusetts, 1867

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37
Q

State and federal reporting requirements for industrial accidents began…

A

Late 1800s

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38
Q

Concerns of workers and occupational health and safety professionals have historically and often been misperceived as….

A

Opposing the concerns of the business sector

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39
Q

The first factory inspection department was created in Massachusetts

A

1867

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40
Q

The Bureau of Labor Statistics was established

A

1869

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41
Q

Pennsylvania passed legislation requiring two exits from all mines

A

1869

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42
Q

Employer Liability Law passed

A

1877

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43
Q

Massachusetts passed the first law requiring safeguards for hazardous machinery

A

1877

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44
Q

The Federal Bureau of Labor, reorganized as the United States Department of Labor (USDL) in 1913, was created to foster promote and develop the welfare of wage earners in the US

A

1884

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45
Q

The US Department of Interior created the Bureau of Mines to investigate accidents, examine health hazards and make recommendations for improvement

A

1907

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46
Q

Wisconsin passed the first effective workers’ compensation law

A

1911

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47
Q

The US Public Health Service (USPHS) was established to scientifically investigate, and analyze the effects of toxins on individual workers

A

1912

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48
Q

The US Department of Labor was established

A

1913

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49
Q

The National Council of Industrial Safety was organized and renamed two years later as the National Safety Council to collect and document occupational injury and illness data

A

1913

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50
Q

The Office of Worker’s Compensation Programs (OWCP) was established for federal employees

A

1916

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51
Q

The New Deal, introduced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, included occupational health reform statutes, and encouraged a renewed advocacy for workplace health and safety– efforts that had waned in the anti-labor sentiment following World War I

A

1933

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52
Q

The Division of Labor Standards was established to collaborate with other organizations to develop safety codes and standards, disseminate information about chemical hazards to workers, and improve the efficacy of factory inspection processes

A

1934

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53
Q

The Social Security Act was signed into law

A

1935

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54
Q

The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (Wagner Act) was enacted to govern relations between workers and management which had, before that time, been confrontational, litigious and sometimes violent

A

1935

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55
Q

The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) established the first minimum wage at 25 cents/hour, which was well below what most covered workers already earned; additionally, FLSA initiated the 8 hour workday

A

1938

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56
Q

The Equal Pay Act banned wage discrimination based on gender

A

1963

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57
Q

The Civil Rights Act banned institutional forms of racial discrimination

A

1964

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58
Q

The standard 8-hour workday was federally legislated

A

1968

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59
Q

The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act) was signed into law and established the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) as an agency within the USDL and the OSH Act established the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as an institute within USPHS; it is currently positioned within the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

A

1970

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60
Q

The Federal Mine Safety Act was passed

A

1977

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61
Q

The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) was passed

A

1986

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62
Q

The Community Right-to-Know Act was passed, requiring that the public be made aware of any potentially hazardous materials used by local industries

A

1986

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63
Q

The Amended Clean Air Act of 1970 was passed

A

1990

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64
Q

The Family and Medical Leave Act required covered employers to provide up to 12 weeks unpaid leave and continued medical benefits to eligible employees during any 12 month period

A

1993

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65
Q

Tuberculosis standard was proposed and defeated

A

1997

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66
Q

After a 10 year effort by OSHA and state OSH Administrations, a federal ergonomic standard was released; it was overturned the following year by the president and congress

A

2000

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67
Q

Agriculture was the major US industry

A

1600s

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68
Q

Boston shipyard workers formed the first political organization, called the “Caucus”

A

1739

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69
Q

Trade associations developed among carpenters, tailors and iron workers

A

1750

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70
Q

American and European economies shifted toward a merchant/ capitalist system

A

1780s

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71
Q

Philadelphia printers conducted the first successful strike for higher wages

A

1786

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72
Q

Philadelphia carpenters waged the first strike in the building trades, demanding a 10 hour workday

A

1791

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73
Q

The 10 hour workday was initiated after a general labor strike in Philadelphia the previous year

A

1836

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74
Q

The National Labor Union was established following an economic depression

A

1866

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75
Q

Factory inspection was introduced in Massachusetts

A

1867

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76
Q

The first barrier safeguard patent was awarded

A

1868

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77
Q

The Noble and Holy Knights of Labor, one of the earliest labor unions, which admitted into membership both skilled and unskilled workers of both sexes, was formed and began agitating for workplace safety laws

A

1869

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78
Q

The Colored National Labor Union was formed

A

1869

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79
Q

The Socialist Labor Party established its headquarters in Newark, New Jersey; the party was renamed in 1877 as the Workingman’s Party of America

A

1876

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80
Q

The first Labor Day Parade was organized in New York City

A

1882

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81
Q

The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was founded

A

1886

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82
Q

The United Mine Workers Union was founded in Ohio

A

1890

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83
Q

The first recorded workplace safety program was established in an Illinois steel plant, in response to a flywheel explosion

A

1892

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84
Q

International Ladies Garment Workers Union was founded, primarily to organize workers at Triangle Shirtwaist Factory

A

1900

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85
Q

The Women’s Trade Union League was formed at the AFL convention

A

1903

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86
Q

International Workers of the World (IWW or Wobblies) was founded; it aimed to organize all unions into a labor solidarity in preparation to topple capitalism. IWW is now remembered for organizing women, blacks, new immigrants, and unskilled and migratory laborers, all of whom the AFL had shunned

A

1905

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87
Q

“Uprising of the 20,000”- female shirtwaist makers in New York City strike against sweatshop conditions

A

1909

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88
Q

Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in New York City killed 146 workers, trapped by the lack of fire escapes and locked exit doors

A

1911

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89
Q

20% of American workers walked out in a great strike wave, including national clothing, coal and steel workers

A

1919

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90
Q

The nations first African-American union was founded, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; although receiving support from the AFL, the union was opposed by the Pullman Company, and the brotherhood did not receive an international charter until 1936

A

1925

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91
Q

The New Deal was introduced to congress by President Roosevelt to stimulate the economy after the Great Depression had increased unemployment by 12 million in three years; millions found employment in federally sponsored works programs

A

1933

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92
Q

The National Labor Relations Act of —- (Wagner Act) legalized union practices such as collective bargaining and the closed shops, and outlawed certain anti-union practices such as blacklisting

A

1935

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93
Q

The Committee for Industrial Organizations (CIO), at that time a constituency of the AFL, organized strikes in all major industries

A

1937

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94
Q

The Congress of Industrial Organizations was formed as an independent federation

A

1938

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95
Q

The CIO formed the first political action committee to get out the vote for President Roosevelt

A

1943

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96
Q

The Full Employment Act was signed to increase national employment

A

1946

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97
Q

The Labor-Management Relations Act (Taft-Hartley Act), ostensibly enacted to govern relations between workers and management, in fact restricted union behavior and the activities of union members in order to allow commerce to develop

A

1947

98
Q

The AFL and CIO unified

A

1955

99
Q

Federal employees gained the right to organize and bargain collectively

A

1962

100
Q

National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) was formed by Caesar Chavez

A

1962

101
Q

March on Washington for Jobs and Justice occurred

A

1963

102
Q

NFWA and the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee merged to form the United Farm Workers (UFW) and became an affiliate of the AFL-CIO

A

1966

103
Q

End of Kennedy/Johnson era aided development of depressed areas, urban renewal, and anti-discrimination initiatives

A

1969

104
Q

Rise in debate began over environmental protection vis-à-vis jobs

A

1960s

105
Q

Affirmative Action and Equal Opportunity Acts were signed

A

1970s

106
Q

The Coalition of Black Trade Unionists was formed

A

1972

107
Q

The Labor Council for Latin American Advancement was founded

A

1973

108
Q

The Coalition of Labor Union Women was founded

A

1974

109
Q

Major industries were deregulated

A

1980s

110
Q

The Asian Pacific American Labor Alliance was created within the AFL-CIO

A

1992

111
Q

By the end of the Reagan/Bush era, less than 18% of workers were affiliated with labor unions, compared with half the labor force directly following World War II

A

1992

112
Q

Technology began to surpass ethical guidelines. For example, inherited conditions may one day bar a choice of occupation; the use of random drug testing in non-safety sensitive occupations raises ethical and privacy questions

A

1990s

113
Q

Pride At Work, a national coalition of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender workers and their supporters, becomes an AFL-CIO constituency group

A

1997

114
Q

An estimated 30,000 to 50,000 working-family activists marched in Seattle to tell the World Trade Organization and its allies, “If the global economy doesn’t work for working families, it doesn’t work.”

A

1997

115
Q

5,000 North Carolina workers gained a union contract after a 25 year struggle

A

1999

116
Q

As workers began to assert their demands for workplace health and safety reforms…..

A

Tensions between labor and management increased

117
Q

Early strategies that were effective in improving workplace conditions

A
  1. Labor strikes

2. Lawsuits bought by injured workers against employers

118
Q

Amount of US workforce that were union members in 2003

A

12.9%

119
Q

Union workers are more likely to be informed about ——– than non-union workers

A

The presence of health and safety hazards

120
Q

Successful campaigns conducted by labor unions:

A
  1. 8 hour work day
  2. Overtime compensation
  3. Employer paid health insurance for industrial workers
  4. Regulations aimed at protecting farm and field workers against dangers of pesticide exposure
  5. OSHA’s Cotton Dust Standard of 1978
  6. OSHA’s Occupational Tuberculosis Standard
  7. New enforcement policy regarding respiratory protection in 2004
  8. Defeat of legislation that would give president ability to “fast track” trade legislation without assured protection of workers rights and the environment in 1997
121
Q

Union sponsored regulations aimed at protecting farm and field workers against the dangers of pesticide exposure

A
  1. Lengthening re-entry periods beyond state and federal standards
  2. Requiring testing of farm workers on a regular basis to monitor exposure levels
  3. Restricting the use of dangerous pesticides
122
Q

——– and ——- have had an important influence on workplace health and safety over the years

A

Public pressure

Social activism

123
Q

Social conditions that led to mid-19th century factory reform Nd inspection legislation, including provisions for working hours and minimum age for child employment

A

Increasing societal intolerance of the exploitation and abuse of women and children

124
Q

Workplace disasters that have provided the impetus for general and specific changes on workplace safety regulations

A
  1. Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in 1911

2. West Virginia mining accident in 1968

125
Q

Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire

A
  • 1911
  • killed 146 workers
  • trapped by lack of fire escapes and management locking doors to keep employees for leaving for breaks
  • public pressure caused New York legislature to yield and improve industrial working conditions
  • caused tougher municipal building codes and more stringent factory inspections
126
Q

Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 and relation to public opinion

A

-public outrage after mining accident in West Virginia in 1968 contributed to

127
Q

Social activism in the 1960s raised awareness of the link between….

A

Environmental and occupational health concerns and work processes

128
Q

Silent Spring effect on occupational and environmental health

A

Directed public attention at human health and environmental consequences of certain pesticides, leading to production and usage bans of some products

129
Q

Increased societal awareness of the hazards of chemical exposure has resulted in the development of….

A

Comprehensive protective interventions aimed at both the workplace in general and the management of manufacturing by-products and waste

130
Q

Aim of environmental impact studies

A

Protecting both local ecology and the population

131
Q

When are environmental impact studies required?

A

Before establishing new industrial enterprises

132
Q

Ways that efforts of organized labor have both assisted and been influenced by the concerns for social justice and equality:

A
  1. Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters president, A. Philip Randolph led the 1941 March on Washington which led to creation of Fair Employment Practices Committee
  2. Civil rights movement in the 1960s raised public awareness of effects of racism and drew national attention to struggles of farm workers in California and eventually nationwide
133
Q

When did a growing wellness/ health promotion movement encourage employers to implement workplace and wellness programs and services?

A

1970s

134
Q

Goal of wellness programs

A
  1. Reduce costs by enhancing awareness of self care
  2. Decreasing absenteeism
  3. Improving worker morale
  4. Increasing productivity
135
Q

Critics of the wellness/ health promotion movement maintained…

A

These programs and services shifted blame from the work environment to the individual worker, repeating a trend from earlier years

136
Q

Concerns raised about wellness and health promotion movement

A

Potential discrimination against populations at risk

  1. Smokers
  2. Obese workers
  3. Hypertensives
137
Q

Before passage of workers’ compensation laws, injured workers and the survivors of workers killed on the job could be compensated for their loss or medical cost only through….

A

Litigation

138
Q

Employers were historically protected from loss claims under three common legal defenses:

A
  1. Assumption of risk
  2. Fellow servant rule
  3. Contributory negligence
139
Q

Assumption of risk

A

Defense assumed that workers were aware of occupational hazards and accepted the risk inherent to their jobs

140
Q

Fellow servant rule

A

Assumed that if a co-worker contributed to an accident or injury, that co-worker should be responsible for compensating the injured worker

141
Q

Contributory negligence

A

Held that the employer was not liable if the employee contributed in any way to the injury; this defense strategy argued that physical harm would not have come to the worker had he or she been paying attention to the task, overriding the importance of a lack of protective devices

142
Q

Originally workers’ compensation legislation was intended to…..

A
  • protect businesses from lengthy litigation

- prevent workers’ from becoming wards of the state

143
Q

Workers’ compensation laws were first enacted in ——- in ——-

A

Germany

1884

144
Q

Workers’ compensation laws were widespread in Europe by…..

A

The late 1890s

145
Q

In the United States the first workers’ compensation law was passed in —– in ——

A

Wisconsin

1911

146
Q

Between 1911 and 1921 —- states enacted workers’ compensation laws

A

25

147
Q

All states now have workers’ compensation laws. The last states to enact was ——- in —-

A

Mississippi

1948

148
Q

For workers’ compensation each jurisdiaction has ——— over its own system

A

Administrative control

149
Q

Elements required of all workers’ compensation statutes

A
  1. Negligence or assumption of fault is not material to a claim
  2. Benefits are made available by an employers’ payment of premium to the established administrative system
  3. Workers forfeit their right to sue the employer in exchange for prompt and reasonable compensation
150
Q

In workers’ compensation employers lose their immunity from litigation if any of the following conditions are present:

A
  1. An injury is caused by an employer’s intentional act
  2. The employer is not in compliance with the state workers’ compensation regulations
  3. Punitive action is taken against the employee in retaliation for filing a claim or otherwise pursuing workers’ compensation benefits
151
Q

Two major points underscored by the passage of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970

A
  1. Many occupational hazards are controllable, and their resulting work related injuries and illnesses are preventable
  2. Primary responsibility for providing safe and healthful working environments rests with the employer
152
Q

True or false: Individual states may not arrange their own occupational health and safety programs

A

False

They may with federal approval of state plan

153
Q

Federal approval of state managed occupational health and safety programs is contingent upon

A

A demonstrated ability to provide the essential elements required by the federal plan

154
Q

—- states currently manage their own OSHA-approved state plans

A

26

155
Q

The OSH Act of 1970 established three separate bodies with distinct functions:

A
  1. OSHA
  2. NIOSH
  3. Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission
156
Q

OSHA is positioned within

A

The United States Department of Labor (USDL)

157
Q

Purpose of OSHA

A

Promulgated, administers and enforces workplace health and safety standards, and establishes reporting and recordkeeping procedures to monitor the number and type of job related injuries and illnesses

158
Q

NIOSH is located in

A

US Department of Health and Humans Services (DHHS) as part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

159
Q

Purpose of NIOSH

A

Conducts occupational health and safety research, provides education, and makes health and safety recommendations to OSHA and the nation’s employers

160
Q

Purpose of Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission

A

A separate entity independent from OSHA, primarily arbitrates disputes between employers and OSHA regarding citations and proposed fines

161
Q

Healthy People 2010 outlines…

A

A comprehensive, nationwide health-promotion and disease-prevention agenda in 28 public health focus areas

162
Q

Two focus areas of Healthy People 2010 applicable to occupational and environmental health nursing

A
  1. Occupational health and safety

2. Environmental health

163
Q

Healthy People 2010 is designed to achieve two overarching goals:

A
  1. Increase quality and years of healthy life

2. Eliminate health disparities

164
Q

The underlying premise of Healthy People 2010 is that…..

A

The health of the individual is almost inseparable from the health of the larger community

165
Q

Healthy People 2010 builds on ——- , aiming for ——

A

Initiatives and objectives pursued over the past two decades

Measurable and achievable public health objectives

166
Q

Interim evaluations in Healthy People 2010 in the occupational and environmental health and safety focus area have and will continue to result in the following:

A
  1. New objectives to address emerging work related concerns
  2. Revision, replacement or elimination of objectives that cannot be tracked reliably or have low relative value for monitoring improved outcomes in worker health and safety
167
Q

The Healthy People 2010 goal for chapter 20, Occupational Safety and Health is…

A

To promote the health and safety of people at work through prevention and early intervention

168
Q

The Healthy People 2010 goal for chapter 8, Environmental Health

A

To promote health for all through a healthy environment

169
Q

Healthy Communities 2000: Model Standards was developed to

A

Help implement national health objectives for community populations, including working populations, by providing a “framework for incremental improvement in community health status through preventive health service programming”

170
Q

Healthy People 2010 topics addressed in Occupational Safety and Health chapter

A
  1. Work related injury deaths
  2. Work related injuries
  3. Overexertion or repetitive motion
  4. Pneumoconiosis deaths
  5. Work related homicides
  6. Work related assaults
  7. Elevated blood lead levels from work exposure
  8. Occupational skin diseases and disorders
  9. Worksite stress reduction programs
  10. Needlestick injuries
  11. Work related noise induced hearing loss
171
Q

Healthy People 2010 topics addressed in Environmental Health chapter

A
  1. Outdoor air quality
  2. Water quality
  3. Toxins and waste
  4. Healthy homes and healthy communities
  5. Infrastructure and surveillance
  6. Global environmental health
172
Q

Types of challenges faced by occupational health and safety programs and services in developing countries:

A
  1. Societal
  2. Cultural
  3. Political
173
Q

Occupational health and safety and services in developing countries face many societal, cultural and political challenges including the following:

A
  1. Poor general working conditions
  2. Substandard wages
  3. Lack of political commitment; corruption on many levels
  4. Lack of awareness among the working population of both their hazardous occupational exposures and their rights as workers to safe working conditions
  5. Inadequate workers’ compensation, or no workers’ compensation at all
  6. Inadequate health and safety legislation; non-enforcement of existing laws
  7. Exploitation of labor force, including child labor
  8. Lack of regulation related to environmental pollution and degradation
  9. Inadequate supply of occupational health and safety expertise
  10. Hazardous industries, operations, equipment, machinery and products often imported from developed countries where they may be banned
174
Q

International organizations committed to occupational health and safety

A
  1. The World Health Organization (WHO)
  2. The International Labor Organization (ILO)
  3. The European Commission
  4. The International Commission on Occupational Health (ICOH)
175
Q

WHO was established in….

A

1948

176
Q

Why was WHO established?

A

To promote international cooperation to improve health conditions

177
Q

Purpose of WHO

A

To promote the attainment of the highest level of health by all people in the world

178
Q

Following ———–, WHO developed a global strategy on occupational health

A

The 1994 Declaration on Occupational Health for All

179
Q

In 1990, WHO created a global network of….

A

Occupational Health Collaborating Centers

180
Q

The ILO was established in….

A

1919

181
Q

Why was ILO established?

A

To protect the life and health of working men and women and to control occupational hazards

182
Q

ILO’s services include:

A
  1. Policy and advisory guidance through it’s International Program for the Improvement of Working Conditions and Environment
  2. Provision of information through its International Occupational Safety and Health Center in Geneva, Switzerland (known as CIS)
183
Q

The European Comission

A

Has developed directives aimed at harmonizing occupational health and safety laws in European Union Members

184
Q

ICOH was established in

A

1906

185
Q

ICOH is recognized by the United Nations as a…..

A

Nongovernmental organization

186
Q

Purpose of ICOH

A

To foster the scientific progress, knowledge and development of occupational health in the international community

187
Q

ICOH has a close working relationship with:

A
  1. WHO
  2. ILO
  3. Other United Nations agencies
188
Q

Since 1969, ICOH’s Scientifc Committee on Occupational Health Nursing has produced…

A

9 reports for occupational health nurses internationally

189
Q

The trend towards globalization of trade, while economically beneficial, is…..

A

Introducing a host of occupational hazards to developing countries

190
Q

—- of the global workforce lives in developing countries where the —— and ——– —— is lacking to protect workers from occupational hazards

A

75%

Technical and social infrastructure

191
Q

The ILO estimates that the overall economic losses resulting from work related diseases and injuries are approximately 4% of…..

A

The World’s gross national product

192
Q

The nature of occupational hazards can be broadly categorized as:

A
  1. Physical hazards
  2. Chemical hazard
  3. Biological hazards
  4. Mechanical hazards
  5. Psychosocial hazards
193
Q

Physical hazards

A

Agents or forces inherent to the nature of a work environment or process that may cause tissue damage or other physical harm

194
Q

Examples of physical hazards

A
  1. Environmental noise contamination
  2. Thermal stress
  3. Sustained or repeated body contact with vibrating surfaces
  4. Ionizing radiation
  5. Non-ionizing radiation
  6. Electric and magnetic fields
  7. Hyperbaric environments
  8. Lasers
195
Q

———– is the single most prevalent occupational hazard

A

Environmental noise contamination

196
Q

Each year more than ——– workers are exposed to continuous or impulse noise at levels sufficient to cause measurable hearing loss

A

30 million

197
Q

Environmental noise contamination can elicit…

A

Physiologic and psychologic stress reactions resulting in neuro-endocrine stimulation capable of adversely affecting multiple body systems

198
Q

Thermal stress

A

Experienced by workers working in conditions of excessive heat or cold

199
Q

Thermal stress can lead to….

A

Multiple pathologies, including cardiovascular and metabolic disturbances, central and peripheral neurological alterations, and mental status changes resulting in impaired judgement and performance and increased risk of accidents

200
Q

Sustained or repeated body contact with vibrating surfaces has been associated with….

A

Neurologic, neurovascular, and musculoskeletal changes and visual and gastrointestinal disorders

201
Q

Examples of ionizing radiation

A
  1. Isotopes
  2. X-rays
  3. Radium
202
Q

Examples of non-ionizing radiation

A
  1. Welding flash
  2. Ultraviolet rays
  3. Microwaves
  4. Sunburn
203
Q

The American National Standards Institute classifies chemicals as:

A
  1. Dusts/particulates
  2. Fumes
  3. Mists
  4. Vapors
  5. Gases
204
Q

Chemical formulations include

A
  1. Solutions
  2. Metals
  3. Solvents
  4. Aerosols
  5. Pharmaceuticals
  6. Oils
  7. Synthetic textiles
  8. Pesticides
  9. Explosives
205
Q

Commercial products are often formulated with ——— and ———- which may themselves be toxic

A

Various additives

Stabilizers

206
Q

An estimated ——– workers are annually exposed to one or more chemical hazards that may cause, contribute to, or exacerbate serious adverse health effects

A

32 million

207
Q

NIOSH has identified ——- toxic substances and —— carcinogens that pose threats to human health in the workplace

A

13,000

2,000

208
Q

Regulation of safe exposure limits for chemical substances requires…..

A

Clear scientific evidence of pathologic effects

209
Q

The burden of proof for regulation of safe exposure limits lies with….

A

OSHA, which relies on evidence from NIOSH and other research entities

210
Q

Primary routes of chemical exposure are:

A
  1. Inhalation
  2. Transdermal absorption
  3. Ingestion
211
Q

Deleterious effects from chemical exposure range from…

A

Local reactions to systemic and end-organ damage

212
Q

Acute effects of chemical exposure

A

Usually linked to a single high dose incident with an identifiable offending substance

213
Q

Chronic effects from chemical exposure

A

Evolve insidiously, presenting multiple challenges in establishing causal relationships to exposure

214
Q

Allergic reactions from chemical exposure

A

Not consistent with the usual population dose-response curve

215
Q

Biologic hazards found in the work environment include:

A
  1. Viruses
  2. Bacteria
  3. Fungi
  4. Molds
  5. Parasites
216
Q

Exposure to biologic agents can be ——- or ——–

A

Direct

Indirect

217
Q

Three routes of transmission for biologic hazards

A
  1. Airborne
  2. Droplet
  3. Contact
218
Q

Examples of occupations who are exposed to biologic hazards

A
  1. Healthcare workers
  2. Workers who work with animals or animal products
  3. Workers whose jobs involve contact with soil
219
Q

Workers who have contact with animals or animal products may be at risk for….

A

Zoonotic diseases

220
Q

Workers whose jobs involve contact with soil are at risk for….

A

Parasitic diseases and bacterial or fungal infections

221
Q

Prevention and control methods related to biohazard include….

A
  1. Immunization
  2. Isolation of the agent
  3. Engineering control measures (effective ventilation mechanics)
  4. Personal protective gear
  5. Hand washing
222
Q

Challenges to prevention and control of biological hazards include:

A
  1. Emerging infectious agents
  2. The potential that terrorists ,at release biohazards in the workplace
  3. Drug resistance and organism mutation because of overuse of antibiotics and lapses in treatment regimens
223
Q

Since 1980 there have been more than —- new infectious processes identified

A

30

224
Q

Examples of emerging diseases since 1980

A
  1. Lyme disease
  2. Legionnaire’s disease
  3. HIV/AIDS
  4. Necrotizing fasciitis
  5. Avian influenza
  6. Hantavirus
  7. Ebola
225
Q

Mechanical hazards

A

Elements of the workplace that lead to stress or injury through an incompatibility between the design of the workplace or work processes and human physiology

226
Q

Biomechanical hazards

A

They represent not only an interface between equipment and humans, but also the physiologic mechanics required to perform work duties

227
Q

Major effects of mechanical and biomechanical hazards

A

Mainly the musculoskeletal and peripheral nervous system, but other systems may be affected as well

228
Q

The identification, analysis and abatement of biomechanical hazards are often a function of….

A

Applied ergonomics

229
Q

Effects of biomechanical stresses can be…..

A

Temporary or result in permanent disability

230
Q

Acute effects of biomechanical stresses

A
  1. Musculoskeletal injuries
  2. Muscular strain or fatigue
  3. Visual fatigue
231
Q

Musculoskeletal injuries related to biomechanical hazard soften result from:

A
  1. Overexertion
  2. Slips
  3. Falls
  4. Other accidents
232
Q

Muscle strain or fatigue related to biomechanical hazards are often caused by:

A
  1. Forceful exertion

2. Awkward positioning

233
Q

Chronic effects of biomechanical hazards include:

A
  1. Raynaud’s syndrome
  2. Cumulative trauma injuries stemming from repeated or sustained motions resulting in neurological and musculoskeletal disorders
  3. Chronic back pain
234
Q

Raynaud’s syndrome can result from

A

Use of vibrating tools

235
Q

Chronic back pain can result from….

A

Improper lifting or awkward, abrupt movements

236
Q

Prevention and control of biomechanical pathologies is best achieved through….

A

Engineering designs that focus on manipulating elements of the work facilities and processes to accommodate the characteristics, capabilities and expectations of the worker

237
Q

ILO reports that more than —– of workers in industrialized countries complain of job related stress and its adverse consequences

A

50%

238
Q

Psychosocial hazards are often difficult to identify and even more difficult to quantify because of…

A

Their intangible and insidious nature and the variable responses among individuals

239
Q

Workplace psychosocial distress stems from…..

A

Multiple sources internal and external to the organization

240
Q

Psychosocial stress hazards may be manifested:

A
  1. Physically
  2. Psychologically
  3. Behaviorally
241
Q

Outcomes of psychosocial stress hazards may be detrimental to…..

A
  1. Individual
  2. Co-workers
  3. General workplace morale
  4. Productivity
242
Q

The economic implications of psychosocial stress hazards include:

A
  1. Lost productivity
  2. Costs related to medical benefits
  3. Temporary help
  4. Employee turnover
  5. Losses related to the impact of stressed employees on customer relations
243
Q

Psychosocial hazards may be symptomatic of…

A

Widespread organizational problems rather than isolated incidents, indicating a need for systemic solutions

Occupational & Environmental Health (49 decks)

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