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Research Flashcards

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1
Q

What is considered the most valuable type of research?

A

The experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships, is considered the most valuable type of research because it controls treatment conditions and uses randomization to eliminate extraneous variables.

(c)

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2
Q

What does parsimony mean in the context of experiments?

A

Parsimony means interpreting the results in the simplest way possible, preferring the least complex explanation for findings in research.

(a)

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3
Q

What does Occam’s Razor suggest about experimental results?

A

Occam’s Razor suggests that experimenters should interpret results in the simplest manner possible, known as the principle of parsimony or economy.

(a)

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4
Q

What indicates an experiment is confounded or flawed?

A

An experiment is confounded or flawed if it includes extraneous variables that the experimenter did not control, affecting the validity of the results.

(c)

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5
Q

How is the concept of parsimony related to Occam’s Razor in research?

A

Parsimony is synonymous with Occam’s Razor, both suggesting that the simplest explanation of experimental results is preferred.

(d)

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6
Q

When is an experiment said to be confounded?

A

An experiment is confounded when undesirable, uncontrolled variables are introduced, potentially contaminating the results.

(a)

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7
Q

What do IV and DV stand for in experimental terminology?

A

IV stands for Independent Variable, which is manipulated by the researcher, and DV stands for Dependent Variable, which is the outcome or effect measured in the experiment.

(a)

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8
Q

In an experiment testing biofeedback’s effect on board exam scores, what are the IV and DV?

A

The IV is the biofeedback training, and the DV is the board exam score.

(c)

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9
Q

What is the variable you manipulate/control in an experiment?

A

The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the IV, or Independent Variable.

(d)

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10
Q

What groups are needed for a formal experiment in counseling education?

A

A control group and an experimental group are needed, where the experimental group receives the intervention and the control group does not.

(c)

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11
Q

What does the experimental group receive in the context of the biofeedback experiment?

A

The experimental group receives the manipulated Independent Variable (IV), which is the biofeedback training.

(c)

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12
Q

Who is most closely related to hypothesis testing?

A

R. A. Fisher is most closely related to hypothesis testing, pioneering methods to test educated guesses in experimental research.

(d)

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13
Q

What does the null hypothesis suggest in an experiment testing the effect of biofeedback on exam scores?

A

The null hypothesis suggests that biofeedback will not improve board exam scores, predicting no significant difference due to the intervention.

(c)

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14
Q

What does the experimental hypothesis suggest in the biofeedback and board exam experiment?

A

The experimental hypothesis suggests that biofeedback would raise board exam scores.

(a)

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15
Q

What statistical tool is necessary to compare the control group to the experimental group?

A

A test of significance, such as a t-test, is necessary to determine if differences between the control and experimental group scores are statistically significant and not due to chance.

(d)

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16
Q

What does the letter P represent in relation to a test of significance?

A

The letter P represents probability, specifically the probability that the observed differences in an experiment are due to chance.

(c)

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17
Q

What is the accepted probability level in social science research?

A

The accepted probability level in social science research is usually .05 or less.

(a)

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18
Q

What does P = .05 signify in experimental research?

A

P = .05 signifies there is only a 5% chance that the difference observed between the control and experimental groups is due to chance.

(b)

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19
Q

What is the implication of P = .05 in terms of experimental repeatability?

A

P = .05 implies that differences are real and the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 times out of 100.

(a)

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20
Q

Which significance level best rules out chance factors in a study?

A

A significance level of P = .001 best rules out chance factors, indicating only a 0.1% probability that results are due to chance.

(c)

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21
Q

What are Type I and Type II errors called respectively?

A

Type I and Type II errors are called alpha and beta errors respectively.

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22
Q

When does a Type I error occur?

A

A Type I error occurs when you reject the null hypothesis when it is actually true.

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23
Q

What is a Type II error?

A

A Type II error, also known as a beta error, occurs when you accept the null hypothesis when it is false.

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24
Q

What type of error is made if experimental results incorrectly indicate that biofeedback raises board exam scores?

A

A Type I error is made, as the null hypothesis that biofeedback does not affect scores is incorrectly rejected.

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25
What is the effect of increasing the sample size in an experiment?
Increasing the sample size reduces both Type I and Type II errors, making the results more likely to be genuine.
26
What happens if a researcher changes the significance level from .05 to .001?
Alpha errors decrease but beta errors increase, affecting the balance of error types in the experiment.
27
What statistical method should be used to test for significant differences between an experimental group receiving assertiveness training and a control group that does not?
The student’s t-test should be used to determine if there are significant differences between the two groups.
28
In an experiment with three groups varying in the number of assertiveness training sessions, which statistical method should be used?
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) should be used to compare the differences across the three groups.
29
If an experiment uses two independent variables, what is the appropriate statistical test?
A two-way ANOVA or MANOVA should be used to analyze the effects of the two independent variables.
30
In an ANOVA, what is consulted to determine if significant differences exist?
A table for F values is consulted to check if the differences between groups are statistically significant.
31
Which level of significance best rules out chance factors in an experiment?
P = .001 best rules out chance factors by setting a stringent threshold for statistical significance.
32
What does a correlation coefficient reveal?
A correlation coefficient reveals the relationship between two variables, such as IQ and the incidence of panic disorder.
33
What would be the correlation between study time and exam scores if more study time leads to higher scores?
The correlation would be positive, indicating that increases in one variable are associated with increases in the other.
34
Which scenario is likely to yield a perfect correlation of 1.00?
The correlation between length in inches and length in centimeters would yield a perfect correlation of 1.00 due to the direct conversion factor.
35
What would be the expected correlation between the length of CACREP graduates’ baby toes and their CPCE scores?
The correlation is expected to be close to 0.00, indicating no relationship between these two variables.
36
Why is it incorrect to say that NCC status causes therapists to practice systematic desensitization based on a high correlation between the two?
It is incorrect because correlation does not imply causation; a high correlation does not mean one variable causes the other.
37
What is the first step in an N = 1 intensive experimental design used by behaviorists?
The first step is to take a baseline measure of the behavior in question.
38
What type of study is conducted when clients do not know their group assignment but the researcher does?
This is a single-blind study, where subjects are unaware of their group assignment to prevent bias.
39
What type of study is it when neither the clients nor the researchers know who received a new treatment?
This is a double-blind study, ensuring neither the participants nor the experimenters can introduce bias into the results.
40
How is correlational research described in relation to its ability to determine relationships?
Correlational research is described as measuring the degree of relationship between variables, not cause and effect.
41
How does a normal or Gaussian curve appear graphically?
A normal or Gaussian curve appears as a symmetrical bell. ## Footnote (a)
42
What is the mode in statistics?
The mode is the most frequently occurring score in a distribution and is considered the least important measure of central tendency. ## Footnote (a)
43
What does a bimodal distribution look like?
A bimodal distribution looks like a camel’s back with two humps. ## Footnote (b)
44
In a frequency polygon, what represents the point of maximum concentration?
The mode represents the point of maximum concentration in a frequency polygon. ## Footnote (c)
45
Which is the most useful measure of central tendency?
The mean, often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it, is the most useful measure of central tendency. ## Footnote (a)
46
When a counselor calculates that a client is averaging $30 per hour across three jobs, what measure is being used?
The counselor is using the mean to calculate the average hourly rate. ## Footnote (d)
47
When is the mean misleading as a measure of central tendency?
The mean is misleading when the distribution has extreme scores or is skewed. ## Footnote (d)
48
How is a non-normally distributed set of scores described?
A non-normally distributed set of scores is described as a skewed distribution. ## Footnote (c)
49
What is the median?
The median is the middle score when data are arranged from highest to lowest. ## Footnote (a)
50
What type of design is used in experiments to study the effects of more than one independent variable?
A factorial design is used to study the effects of more than one independent variable. ## Footnote (c)
51
Which value will always be the highest point on a graphical distribution, regardless of the distribution’s shape?
The mode will always be the highest point on a graphical distribution. ## Footnote (d)
52
What type of skewness would you expect in a distribution where all scores are very low?
A distribution with all low scores would be positively skewed, having a long tail to the right. ## Footnote (b)
53
What type of skewness is expected when all scores in a distribution are high?
When all scores are high, the distribution would be negatively skewed, with a tail extending to the left. ## Footnote (c)
54
What does a raw score indicate?
A raw score indicates the exact marks obtained without any modifications or transformations; more information is necessary to understand its significance. ## Footnote (d)
55
What is a histogram?
A histogram is a type of bar graph used to represent data that are grouped into ranges. ## Footnote (a)
56
What is the term for the horizontal line under a frequency distribution?
The term for the horizontal line under a frequency distribution is the x axis. ## Footnote (d)
57
What is another name for the x axis in an experimental graph?
Another name for the x axis in an experimental graph is the abscissa. ## Footnote (b)
58
What is another term for the y axis?
Another term for the y axis is the ordinate. ## Footnote (a)
59
What might indicate that an experiment involves two distinct populations?
A bimodal distribution in the experiment’s data might indicate two distinct populations. ## Footnote (c)
60
What denotes the reliability of an experiment in terms of replication?
An experiment is said to be reliable if it can be replicated by others with almost identical findings. ## Footnote (d)
61
How is the range calculated in a set where the highest score is 93 and the lowest is 33?
The range is 60, calculated as 93 - 33. ## Footnote (a)
62
What is a scattergram used to illustrate in statistics?
A scattergram is used to illustrate a correlation coefficient between two variables. ## Footnote (c)
63
How does the range of scores typically compare between a smaller class and a larger class?
The range of scores is generally greater in the larger class due to increased sample size. ## Footnote (a)
64
In a standard IQ test with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, what percentage of scores falls between 85 and 115?
68% of the scores fall within one standard deviation of the mean, between 85 and 115. ## Footnote (d)
65
Where would an IQ score of 122 fall relative to the mean on a standard deviation scale?
An IQ score of 122 falls within + or -2 SDs of the mean. ## Footnote (d)
66
What does a z-score of +1 signify?
A z-score of +1 signifies 1 standard deviation above the mean. ## Footnote (a)
67
What does a z-score of -2.5 indicate?
A z-score of -2.5 indicates 2.5 standard deviations below the mean. ## Footnote (a)
68
What does a t-score of 40 signify in standard deviations?
A t-score of 40 signifies -1 standard deviation from the mean. ## Footnote (b)
69
What is indicated by an IQ score that is 3 standard deviations above the mean?
An IQ score 3 SDs above the mean indicates a very superior intelligence level. ## Footnote (d)
70
What does a platykurtic distribution look like?
A platykurtic distribution is flatter and more spread out than a normal curve, resembling the upper half of a hot dog lying on its side. ## Footnote (c)
71
How are scores that fall more than 3 standard deviations from the mean described?
Scores that fall more than 3 SDs from the mean are described as extreme. ## Footnote (a)
72
In stanine scoring, where would a Binet IQ score of 101 fall?
A Binet IQ score of 101 would fall in stanine 5. ## Footnote (c)
73
What type of scale is used to classify DSM or ICD diagnostic categories?
DSM or ICD diagnostic categories are classified using a nominal scale. ## Footnote (b)
74
What type of measurement scale is used when a horse is categorized as a second-place winner in a race?
The ordinal scale is used, which ranks variables without assuming equal distance between ranks. ## Footnote (a)
75
Can you multiply or divide using an interval scale? Provide an example.
No, you cannot multiply or divide using an interval scale. For example, an IQ of 140 is not twice as intelligent as an IQ of 70, despite the numerical doubling. ## Footnote (a)
76
Which scale of measurement includes a true zero point allowing for ratio measurements?
A ratio scale includes a true zero point and allows for ratio measurements. Most psychological attributes, however, cannot be measured on a ratio scale. ## Footnote (d)
77
What characterizes a naturalistic observation approach in research?
In naturalistic observation, the researcher does not manipulate or control variables, allowing observation in a natural setting. ## Footnote (c)
78
What completion rate is generally required for survey data to be considered accurate?
A completion rate of 50–75% is generally required for survey data to be considered accurate. ## Footnote (c)
79
What is the placebo effect?
The placebo effect occurs when a person’s symptoms improve after receiving a treatment that has no therapeutic effect, such as a sugar pill. ## Footnote (c)
80
What best explains the improvement of clients who are not receiving counseling but know they are being observed in a study?
The Hawthorne effect best explains the improvement, suggesting that the attention given to subjects during the study influences their performance. ## Footnote (a)
81
What explains the phenomenon where children excel after being told they would, despite no initial testing?
The Rosenthal effect or experimenter expectancy effect, where expectations influence outcomes. ## Footnote (c)
82
What explains a researcher rating attractive females as better counselors?
The Halo effect, where an unrelated trait (attractiveness) influences judgments on professional abilities. ## Footnote (b)
83
What does the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) not do?
It is not a correlation coefficient; it adjusts group means to control for covariates. ## Footnote (a)
84
What type of study compares two groups based on characteristics established years prior?
Causal comparative research, comparing based on prior conditions without random assignment. ## Footnote (d)
85
In a normal distribution, what percentage of people score between 85 and 115 on an IQ test?
Approximately 68% of people score within one standard deviation of the mean. ## Footnote (d)
86
What does statistical regression predict about unusually high or low scores when a test is retaken?
Scores will move toward the mean; high scores decrease, and low scores increase. ## Footnote (c)
87
What is essential for a test to be considered standardized?
Formal procedures for test administration and scoring must be consistent. ## Footnote (a)
88
How does a longitudinal study differ from a cross-sectional study?
It studies the same individuals over a period of time, rather than assessing different individuals at one point. ## Footnote (b)
89
What do Betty and Linda exemplify in an experimental setting where they react to the knowledge of being studied?
Demand characteristics of experiments, where participants’ behavior is influenced by their awareness of being studied. ## Footnote (d)
90
What can be used to examine specific differences between group means after an ANOVA shows significant differences?
Post hoc tests like Duncan’s multiple-range, Tukey’s, or Scheffe’s test can be used to examine these differences. ## Footnote (c)
91
What is counterbalancing in a study?
Changing the order of stimulus presentation to control for order effects in the study’s outcome. ## Footnote (b)
92
What resource is ideal for a doctoral student beginning bibliography work on a thesis?
ERIC, for accessing a wide range of primary and secondary educational resources. ## Footnote (b)
93
What sampling method ensures that 20% of the sample is African American?
Stratified sampling, where subgroups are proportionally represented according to the population. ## Footnote (c)
94
Can a true experiment be conducted without using a random sample?
Yes, using systematic sampling where every nth individual is selected can approximate random sampling effects. ## Footnote (c)
95
What is an operational definition in research?
It outlines specific procedures used in an experiment, allowing for replication and clear understanding of terms. ## Footnote (a)
96
Which of the following are nonparametric statistical measures?
All listed options (Mann–Whitney U test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and Kruskal–Wallis H test) are nonparametric. ## Footnote (d)
97
What is flawed about concluding that paradoxical strategies are the best treatment for phobias based on one session?
Inductive reasoning is used improperly; generalizing from a single case to all cases without sufficient evidence. ## Footnote (b)
98
What type of logic is a client using when he dismisses a new treatment program based on past ineffective experiences?
Deductive logic; he applies his general experience to a specific instance. ## Footnote (a)
99
What must be known to predict a client’s future test score based on their current test score?
The standard error of measurement (SEM) of the test, which indicates possible score variations if retaken. ## Footnote (c)
100
What type of scale is used when clients rate their agreement on a scale from 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree'?
A Likert Scale, which measures attitudes by gauging intensity of agreement or disagreement. ## Footnote (d)

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