Pump Ops Book Flashcards
What is required before operating a manual regeneration switch for a DPF system?
The vehicle must be in park.
What does the HEST indicator signify on post-2007 diesel apparatus?
High Exhaust System Temperature during active regeneration.
What can happen if DEF fluid is not topped off regularly?
The engine can be derated or enter a 5 MPH limp mode.
How long should a hot engine idle to cool before shutdown?
3 to 5 minutes.
Why should a diesel engine never be shut off while in motion?
It cuts off fuel flow that lubricates injectors and may cause pressure build-up.
What is ‘due regard’ in emergency vehicle operations?
Operating with the safety of others in mind.
What type of apparatus has the most frequent mechanical issues?
Homebuilt apparatus.
What is ‘situational awareness’ while driving?
Knowing surroundings and anticipating events.
Where do most emergency vehicle crashes occur?
At intersections.
What causes brake fade?
Overuse of brakes leading to loss of function.
What are the three angles used to assess truck movement over terrain?
Angle of Approach, Angle of Departure, and Breakover Angle.
What happens when the steering axle is too heavy?
Hard steering and increased tire wear.
What is engine lugging?
Using too high of a gear for the engine’s demand.
What is overthrottling?
Injecting more fuel than can be burned, causing carbon buildup and oil dilution.
How much following distance should emergency vehicles maintain?
300 to 500 feet.
Why should apparatus turn headlights on during daytime responses?
To increase visibility to civilians.
What is the function of strobe light preemption devices?
To change traffic lights in favor of approaching emergency vehicles.
What is visual head time?
The time a driver has to see and react to conditions ahead.
What is the purpose of an exhaust brake?
To help slow the vehicle by restricting exhaust flow.
What should always be done when backing apparatus?
Use one or more spotters positioned 8–10 feet behind the truck.
What is the NFPA standard that prohibits dashboard riding?
NFPA 1500.
What safety feature is required during hose loading operations?
One dedicated spotter and forward movement at no more than 5 MPH.
What does DPF stand for and what does it do?
Diesel Particulate Filter; collects soot from exhaust gases.
What causes diesel particulate filters to enter ‘regen’ mode?
Accumulated soot requiring high heat to burn off during regeneration.
What component allows operators to inhibit regen for safety?
Regen Inhibit Switch.
What is the danger of running an engine without DEF fluid?
It may enter limp mode at 5 MPH and require dealership servicing.
What are the three zones established at hazmat incidents?
Hot Zone, Warm Zone, and Cold Zone.
What does a 2 short horn blast signal mean during backing operations?
The spotter is signaling the operator to stop or pause backing.
How much should apparatus cabinets be able to restrain?
10 times the weight of the contents.
What is the recommended method for positioning apparatus for fire attack?
Pre-incident planning and pulling past the building for visibility.
When should pumpers lay their own supply lines?
When access is limited or narrow, to avoid delays.
Why should pumpers park uphill during a fuel spill incident?
To prevent fuel from running toward the apparatus.
What is a collapse zone and how is it calculated?
1.5 times the height of the building.
What is the preferred side of the building for aerial apparatus during collapse risk?
Corner of the building.
When positioning pumpers for high-rise support, where should they park?
As close to the aerial as possible.
What is a dry hydrant?
A non-pressurized pipe with a strainer submerged in water for drafting.
How deep must the strainer be for a dry hydrant?
At least 2 feet under water.
What is dual pumping?
Using one hydrant to supply two pumpers.
What is tandem pumping?
Using two pumpers in series to increase pressure or distance of supply.
When should relay pumping be used?
To increase volume over long distances between source and fire.
Where should wildland engines be parked during a fire attack?
Leeward side of structures with AC set to recirculate.
How far should units stage in Level 1 staging?
1 to 2 blocks away.
What distinguishes Level 2 staging?
It’s used for multiple alarms and managed by a Staging Area Manager.
Where should the side-mounted pump panel face?
Toward the fire scene for visibility and access.
How far must fire apparatus park from railroad tracks?
Maintain a 30-foot clear zone.
What is the function of a breakover angle?
It determines the point where the midpoint of the chassis could contact the ground.
How does excessive rear overhang affect the angle of departure?
Increases the risk of bottoming out when exiting slopes.
Why should firefighters avoid parking on vaulted surfaces?
Due to structural collapse risks from underground voids like basements or culverts.
What is the appropriate response if the operator loses visual contact with a spotter?
Stop immediately, set the parking brake, and exit the cab.
What is the difference between forward lay and reverse lay?
Forward lay runs hose from source to scene; reverse lay goes from scene to source.
What is the main risk when using the exhaust brake system in bad weather?
Loss of traction and control due to reduced braking balance.
What is the total stopping distance composed of?
Braking distance plus reaction distance.
What is the skid recovery technique for a locked wheel skid?
Ease off the brake and straighten the steering wheel.
What type of skid results from excessive throttle?
Acceleration skid.
What are the three basic types of auxiliary braking systems?
Engine compression brake, transmission output retarder, exhaust brake.
What is the required auxiliary braking system for vehicles over 36,000 lbs per NFPA 1901?
At least one auxiliary braking system.
Why should automatic traction control (ATC) be used carefully?
Improper use can reduce traction on slick surfaces by limiting power.
What is the Driver Controlled Differential Lock (DCDL)?
Locks wheels to turn at the same speed for improved traction.
How should the DCDL be used on slopes?
Disengage while turning or descending downhill.
What does the Interaxle Differential Lock do?
Locks tandem axles to improve traction.
What is Roll Stability Control (RSC)?
Reduces engine power or applies brakes to avoid rollover.
What does Electronic Stability Control (ESC) do?
Applies brakes to specific wheels to maintain direction of travel.
What is the visual and audio signal for backing a truck?
Two short horn blasts and visual contact with a spotter.
How fast can hose deploy from a moving truck?
7 feet per second at 5 MPH.
What is the weight of one cubic foot of water?
62.4 pounds.
What is the boiling point of water?
212°F.
How much does a gallon of water weigh?
8.3 pounds.
How much does water expand when converted to steam?
1700 times its original volume.
What extinguishment methods does water provide?
Cooling and smothering (for fuels with specific gravity >1).
What is surface tension and how does it affect firefighting?
It resists water penetration; wetting agents help reduce it.
Why are water curtains ineffective against radiant heat?
Radiant heat passes through water vapor.
What is atmospheric pressure at sea level?
14.7 psi.
How much head pressure does 1 psi create?
2.304 feet.
What is residual pressure?
Pressure remaining in the system after water flows.
What does friction loss vary directly with?
Length of hose and velocity of water flow.
What effect does hose diameter have on friction loss?
Larger diameter decreases friction loss.
How many 1.5” lines are needed to equal the flow of one 3” line?
Four 1.5” lines.
What are the components of a municipal water system?
Primary feeders, secondary feeders, and distributors.
What is an OS&Y valve used for?
Indicating valve for sprinkler systems.
What is a PIV valve?
Post Indicator Valve that shows open/closed position for water supply.
What happens to friction loss in older hose?
It can be up to 50% greater than in new hose.
What does NPDP stand for?
Net Pump Discharge Pressure.
How is NPDP calculated?
Pump discharge minus intake pressure.
What is the formula for Total Pressure Loss (TPL)?
TPL = Friction Loss + Elevation + Appliance loss.
What is the coefficient for friction loss in 1 3/4” hose?
15.5
What is the coefficient for friction loss in 2.5” hose?
2
What is the coefficient for friction loss in 3” hose?
0.677
What is the coefficient for friction loss in 4” hose?
0.2
What is the coefficient for friction loss in 5” hose?
0.08
What nozzle type produces a solid stream?
Smoothbore nozzle.
How is GPM calculated for smoothbore nozzles?
GPM = 29.7 x d² x √NP
What is the typical nozzle pressure for fog nozzles?
100 psi or 50–75 psi for low-pressure fog nozzles.
What angle range defines a narrow fog stream?
15° to 45°.
What is a cellar nozzle used for?
Distributing water in concealed spaces without shut-off capability.
What is a piercing nozzle designed for?
Penetrating walls or floors to deliver water to concealed fires.
What pressure and flow rate is common for a piercing nozzle?
125 GPM at 100 psi.
What is nozzle reaction?
The backward force generated by water leaving a nozzle.
What is the nozzle reaction formula for a solid stream?
NR = 1.57 x d² x NP
What is the nozzle reaction formula for a fog nozzle?
NR = 0.0505 x Q x √NP
What is a constant flow nozzle?
A nozzle that discharges the same volume of water regardless of stream pattern.
What is an automatic fog nozzle?
A nozzle that adjusts flow rate to maintain constant pressure.
What is considered a handline in terms of GPM?
Less than 350 GPM.
What is the purpose of a master stream?
To deliver large volumes of water in defensive operations or where handlines are ineffective.
When should a master stream be used?
Defensive fire, limited personnel, or when greater reach is needed.
What is the typical psi loss for appliances flowing more than 350 GPM?
10 psi for handline appliances, 25 psi for master stream or elevated waterway.
How is elevation pressure calculated in buildings?
5 psi per floor above the first.
What is the formula for Friction Loss (FL)?
FL = C x Q² x L.
What does each variable in FL = C x Q² x L represent?
C = Coefficient, Q = Flow rate in hundreds of GPM, L = Length of hose in hundreds of feet.
What is the standard nozzle pressure for smoothbore handlines?
50 psi.
What is the standard nozzle pressure for fog handlines?
100 psi.
What is the standard nozzle pressure for smoothbore master streams?
80 psi.
What is a residual pressure reading used for?
Determining how many additional lines can be added to a system.
What is considered a safe residual pressure threshold?
No less than 20 psi.
What are the four categories of residual percentage drop?
0-10% = 3 lines; 11-15% = 2 lines; 16-25% = 1 line; >25% = 0 lines.
What is cavitation?
Formation of air bubbles due to water being discharged faster than intake.
What are signs of cavitation?
Popping noise, pressure fluctuation, gravel sound, no pressure gauge response.
What is the ideal lift height for drafting?
10 feet.
What is the maximum recommended lift height for effective fire streams?
20 feet.
What happens to pump capacity at 20 feet of lift?
Drops to 60% of rated capacity.
What is the purpose of a primer?
To create a vacuum for drafting by evacuating air from the pump.
What is the most common drafting issue?
Air leak on the intake side.
What is a low-level strainer ideal for?
Drafting from portable tanks or pools with low water levels.
How much water should cover a barrel strainer during drafting?
At least 24 inches.
What is the most common blockage point in a drafting operation?
Distal end of the intake strainer.
What is the formula for pump discharge pressure (PDP)?
PDP = Nozzle Pressure + Total Pressure Loss (TPL).
Why must you shut the tank-to-pump valve when switching to external water supply?
To prevent tank over-pressurization.
How much psi is added for elevation when calculating PDP for standpipe operations?
5 psi per floor above the 1st.
What is the maximum standpipe pressure per NFPA?
Do not exceed 185 psi.
Why should you confirm a fire before charging an FDC?
To avoid wasting water on false activations or malfunctions.
What is the preferred position of a pumper when supplying an FDC?
Close to water source with a straight lay to the FDC.
What are the components of a dry standpipe?
A pipe system requiring external water supply before use.
What nozzle pressure is used for standpipe fog lines?
100 psi.
What is a hydraulic water tower?
An aerial with a large capacity elevated stream (up to 300 GPM).
What is the primary difference between aerial ladders and telescoping booms?
Aerial ladders are for climbing, telescoping booms are not.
What is a platform rated to hold without water?
At least 750 lbs.
How much weight can a platform hold when water is flowing?
At least 500 lbs.
What is the flow requirement for aerial apparatus in any position?
At least 1000 GPM.
How long should an aerial <110 ft take to fully deploy and rotate 90°?
150 seconds.
What are the two types of waterway systems on aerial ladders?
Bed-mounted and telescoping.
What is a pinnable waterway?
Allows switching between rescue and elevated stream positions.
What type of bolts are used in aerial ladders and cannot be reused?
Huck bolts.
What angle provides maximum load capacity for aerial ladders?
70° to 80°.
What is torsional stress?
Twisting force on the ladder, often from uneven loading or angle.
What is a gravity circle?
The rotating footprint traced by the aerial during operation.
What is the preferred stabilization method?
Use of jack plates and stabilizers on a level surface.
What is short-jacking?
When one side of the truck cannot fully extend stabilizers due to obstructions.
What are the three common types of stabilizers?
Post, box, and A-frame (scissor).
What is the safe lateral unevenness limit for aerials?
5% (5 feet for every 100 feet).
What should be used when placing stabilizers on ice or soft surfaces?
Jack pads or cribbing.
How can uneven apparatus leveling affect aerial operations?
Shifts the center of gravity and reduces safe working load.
What is a common stabilization failure in cold weather?
Melting snow leaves voids under jack plates, reducing support.
What does NFPA 1901 require for aerial tip radios?
Hands-free radio at the tip/platform.
What type of aerial platform can perform below-grade rescues?
Bronto Skylift or similar articulating platforms.
What causes ‘deadheading’ in hydraulic systems?
Running the hydraulic pump with no fluid flow, causing heat buildup.
What is the effect of high hydraulic oil temperature?
Pump failure or reduced aerial operation efficiency.
What happens if a water curtain nozzle is used improperly?
Can create false sense of safety in high-heat conditions.
What is the maximum allowable ice buildup on aerial ladders per NFPA 1901?
0.14 inches.
What technique helps remove ice from an aerial ladder?
Slowly extend and retract the ladder to ‘shrug’ off ice.
Why should an aerial never be extended or retracted while someone is on it?
Creates pinch points and unsafe conditions.
What is the 75-80-80 rule for aerial ladders?
75° elevation, 80% extension, 80 psi nozzle pressure.
What are dynamic loads in aerial operations?
Loads that involve motion, such as climbing or equipment movement.
What is the preferred direction for ladder operation on grades?
Over the uphill side.
What is the most stable aerial operating position?
Directly over the front or rear of the truck.
What is jackknifing and what is its effect on stability?
Turning the trailer at an angle; 60° is most stable.
How much clearance is required from power lines?
10 feet for standard, 50 feet for high-voltage lines.
How should rescue ladders be placed for aircraft access?
Treat doors like windows and wings like roofs.
What is the best ladder placement for mid-rise rescue?
Outside of the engine for ≤5 floors, inside for >5 floors.
What is the primary use of aerial ladders in aircraft incidents?
Scene lighting and crew access—not typically rescue.
What is the minimum load a platform must support while flowing water?
500 lbs.
Why are floodlights mounted near aerial tips?
To illuminate the work area during nighttime or interior ops.
How should electrical cords be managed on aerials?
Should not exceed 200 feet in length to prevent overheating.
What are four types of hydraulic rescue tools?
Shears, Spreaders, Combination tools, Rams.
What is the maximum practical length for hydraulic tool hose?
100 feet.
What kind of aerial uses a knuckle boom design?
Articulating platform.
What aerial platform design allows for ‘up and over’ movement?
Articulating platform.
How is torque managed during aerial operations?
Avoid lateral loads and operate at high elevation angles.
What are signs of structural collapse?
Bulging walls, falling bricks, sagging roofs, interior collapse.
What is the collapse zone distance?
1.5 times the height of the structure.
Why are building corners preferred for aerial operations?
They are the safest areas in case of collapse.
What is the base rail of an aerial ladder?
The lower support structure running the length of the ladder.
What is ‘K’ bracing in aerial ladders?
Diagonal supports for rigidity between rungs and rails.
What is a turntable?
The rotating platform that supports the aerial device.
What is an interlock system on aerials?
Prevents aerial operation unless stabilizers are deployed.
What safety device is used to prevent hydraulic backflow?
Interlock valves.
What is a tiller apparatus?
A tractor-drawn aerial with a separate rear steering control.
What is the primary function of a water curtain nozzle?
Protect personnel from radiant heat during emergency operations.
What is the function of a selector valve?
Diverts hydraulic fluid to either the ladder or stabilizers.
What aerial component operates at over 3,500 psi?
The hydraulic system including actuators and pump.
Why is huck bolt removal critical?
They are single-use and must be drilled out for replacement.
What is the aerial ladder’s platform height measured to?
The highest handrail at full extension.
What differentiates a telescopic platform from an articulating platform?
Telescopic extends straight; articulating folds like an elbow.
What is the minimum water flow from any platform position?
1000 GPM.
What aerial design offers the greatest reach at low angles?
Telescoping platforms.
Why is grease applied to aerial sections in winter?
Helps shed ice buildup when extending or retracting.
What does NFPA 1901 require for salvage equipment?
Salvage covers and two scoop shovels per truck.
What is the purpose of ventilation with smoke ejectors?
To remove heat and smoke using negative pressure.
What is service testing for trucks?
Annual inspection and testing while the vehicle is in service.
What is a nondestructive test?
Testing aerial metal strength without stressing or damaging components.
What is the first priority when positioning aerial apparatus?
Stabilization, even if the aerial is only raised a few feet.
What is a ‘hot shift’ system in modern aerials?
Allows PTO engagement with the transmission in neutral.
How large are stabilizer pads typically?
24 inches by 24 inches with built-in handles.
What tool can be used to estimate stabilizer clearance?
A short pike pole or arm span.
How should stabilizers be deployed in a 4-jack system?
Parallel side to side or front to back, not one at a time.
What causes repetitive stabilizer damage?
Operating one side repeatedly without alternating load distribution.
What grade level is considered safe for aerial operations?
Up to 5% lateral unevenness.
What should be avoided when placing stabilizers?
Curbs, sidewalks, unpaved, icy, or sandy surfaces.
Why should trucks not be parked over storm drains or manholes?
Potential for explosion or collapse.
How should trucks be parked on bridges during incidents?
Staggered and not clustered to avoid weight concentration.
What emergency vehicle gets parking priority at medical scenes?
EMS/ambulance.
How should aerial apparatus be parked near a structure fire?
To protect operator side and apparatus from heat or collapse.
What are the three types of aircraft incidents involving aerials?
Extrication only, extrication with fire, and non-accident roadway fires.
What are signs of structural instability or collapse?
Cracks, falling bricks, bulging walls, sagging roof.
What are common aerial access challenges?
Narrow driveways, overhead obstructions, dead ends.
How should apparatus be positioned near railroads?
Same side as incident, 25 feet away from tracks.
What is a vault surface and why is it a hazard?
Underground voids like basements that may collapse under apparatus weight.
What should be used when visual contact with the aerial tip is lost?
A spotter to assist with operations.
What happens to stress on the aerial if rungs are not parallel to the ground?
Stress increases and stability decreases.
What is feathering?
Slow and controlled movement of aerial controls.
What is the preferred parking direction for rear-mount aerials?
Backing in, for best operational positioning.
What is the danger of operating a ladder near power lines?
Electrocution risk and equipment damage.
What distance should be maintained near high-voltage lines?
At least 50 feet.
What type of lighting improves civilian response to emergency vehicles?
Sound and light combinations with changing pitch or tone.
Why are headlights used during daytime response?
Improves visibility to civilian drivers.
What is the danger of overthrottling a diesel engine?
Wasted fuel, excessive carbon buildup, and oil dilution.
What should be done before climbing or descending an aerial?
Personnel must be anchored or tethered.
What can affect acceleration and braking on hills?
Differential lock and load distribution.
What should be done before manually operating a regen system?
Ensure the vehicle is parked and not in pump gear.
What is the recommended post-fire overhaul method?
Use of thermal imaging and careful inspection for hidden fire.
What is the function of a PASS device?
To alert rescuers when a firefighter is motionless.
What does positive pressure ventilation accomplish?
Clears smoke and heat by creating airflow out of the structure.
What is the function of a smoke ejector?
Negative pressure fan used to draw smoke out.
What does the term ‘nozzle reaction’ refer to?
The force pushing back on the firefighter from water flow.
How is engine compression braking accomplished?
By converting mechanical energy into heat through compression.
Why is DEF fluid important in diesel engines?
Reduces emissions and prevents engine derating.
What happens if DEF is empty?
Vehicle may enter 5 MPH limp mode and need dealer service.
What do strobe light preemption systems do?
Change traffic signals in favor of emergency vehicles.
What are the two common nozzle types for interior fire attack?
Fog and smoothbore.
What type of nozzle should be used with protein-based foam?
Aspirating nozzle.
What is the primary concern with wheel fires?
Risk of explosion due to heat and pressure buildup.
What is the preferred suppression method for magnesium fires?
Class D extinguisher from a safe distance.
What is the most dangerous gear failure during landing?
One main gear up failure.
What causes the greatest risk in fuel vapor fires?
Unconfined vapor and ignition source proximity.
What are the two primary extinguishing agents for ARFF?
Water/foam and dry chemical agents.
What is used to measure foam concentrate accuracy?
Refractometer or conductivity meter.
What happens when a pump is cavitating?
Water intake is insufficient, creating vapor bubbles and damage.
What is the function of a bypass valve during pump operation?
Allows water to circulate and prevent overheating.
What is the difference between maintenance and repair in apparatus serviceability?
Maintenance is keeping equipment in a state of readiness; repair is restoring something that has become inoperable.
What does NFPA 1002 require driver/operators to be skilled in?
Routine maintenance checks and functions.
What standard outlines qualifications for fire apparatus mechanics?
NFPA 1071.
Who determines maintenance and repair assignments within each department?
The Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ).
Why must tire types not be mixed on fire apparatus?
Mixing radial and bias-ply tires can cause unsafe handling and instability.
How often must all fire apparatus tires be replaced according to NFPA 1911?
Every seven years, regardless of condition.
What can cause poor road handling and excessive fuel use in fire apparatus tires?
Incorrect tire pressure.
Why should road salt be rinsed off fire apparatus?
Salt causes corrosion on steel parts and electrical components.
What is load shedding in electrical load management systems?
The automatic shutdown of less important equipment to prevent electrical overload.
What should be done before lifting a tilt cab?
Ensure adequate vertical clearance and secure all loose items.
What is the primary function of slack adjusters?
Connect the brake actuator to the brake drum and maintain proper brake adjustment.
What is the maximum air pressure drop allowed in 1 minute during an air brake leak test on a straight chassis?
3 psi.
What is the air pressure cutout range for fire apparatus compressors?
120 to 130 psi.
What temperature warning must be heeded when checking radiator coolant?
Check coolant levels only when the engine is cool.
What type of fluid check requires the engine to be running and warm?
Transmission fluid.
What is a sign that apparatus batteries may need service?
Regular need for charging or jump-starting.
How often should a driver/operator lift a tilt cab for inspection?
Weekly, even if inspection doors are used.
What is the acceptable pressure loss in a hard intake hose service test over 5 minutes?
No more than 10 inches of mercury.
According to USFA 2010, how many firefighters were killed while responding or returning from incidents?
17 firefighters.
What does NFPA 1002 establish?
Minimum qualifications for apparatus driver/operators.
What training must be completed to meet NFPA 1002?
Firefighter I course or equivalent.
Why is a full water tank safer than a partially filled one?
Provides better braking and stability due to consistent weight distribution.
What is the definition of ‘Due Regard’ in emergency vehicle driving?
A legal obligation to drive with care and caution for public safety.
What is brake fade?
Loss of braking function due to excessive use and heat buildup.
What must be confirmed verbally before apparatus is in motion?
That all personnel are onboard and belted.
How should hose loading be performed while the vehicle is in motion?
With at least one safety observer, driving slowly (max 5 mph), and no riders on the apparatus.
How often should mirrors be adjusted?
At the start of each shift and whenever driving responsibility changes.
What is the definition of angle of approach?
The angle from level ground to the lowest front projection from tire contact point.
What does Roll Stability Control (RSC) do?
Reduces engine power or applies brakes when rollover risk is detected.
What is the purpose of the regeneration inhibit switch?
To prevent DPF regeneration during unsafe conditions like parked on dry grass.
What happens if the DEF tank is empty?
Engine speed is limited to 5 mph and may require dealer service.
What are the four types of auxiliary braking systems?
Exhaust brake, Engine Compression Brake, Transmission Output Retarder, Electromagnetic Retarder.
What are signs of a locked-wheel skid?
Vehicle skids despite steering; wheels are locked from hard braking.
What type of retarder offers the highest braking torque?
Transmission output and electromagnetic retarders.
What must you do before removing an inlet or discharge cap?
Open the drain or bleeder valve to relieve trapped pressure.
What are the responsibilities of tiller operators?
Trailer placement, cornering, public and crew safety, and local regulation familiarity.
What must be done when climbing on top of apparatus without railings?
Maintain three points of contact, use slip-resistant surfaces, and have a second person present.
What should a driver/operator consider when positioning apparatus on a narrow street?
Ensure access for aerial apparatus and allow space for supply hose lays.
What is the primary tactical priority in a rescue situation?
Life safety.
Why should the pumper be pulled past the building during investigation mode?
To allow viewing of three sides of the structure.
What action must a driver take if standard placement isn’t possible?
Notify incoming units of situation and any necessary changes.
What zone must be maintained around a potentially collapsing structure?
1.5 times the height of the building.
Why are corners considered safe for aerial positioning during structural collapse risks?
They are generally more stable and safer if collapse occurs.
What distance should be maintained for potential falling glass from high-rises?
At least 200 feet.
Why should drivers avoid positioning apparatus directly under utility lines?
Fire or weather conditions could bring lines down onto the apparatus.
What is the ‘Inside/Outside’ method of positioning aerial and attack pumpers?
Buildings <5 floors: aerial outside pumper; buildings >5 floors: aerial inside closer to structure.
What is the best position for a pumper supporting an FDC?
As close to both the FDC and a water source as possible.
What should be avoided during drafting operations from natural sources?
Soft or unstable surfaces that may collapse or trap apparatus.
What must personnel working near water edges wear?
Personal flotation devices (PFDs).
What intake hose type should not be connected directly to a hydrant?
Hard intake hose not rated for positive pressure.
What is the recommended pumper placement for large diameter intake hose connections?
A few feet short of being in line with the hydrant, allowing a slight curve.
What is the wildland/urban interface?
Where structures meet undeveloped land, often requiring unique apparatus positioning.
Why should wildland apparatus back into position facing an exit route?
To allow for quick escape if fire conditions change.
What positioning precautions should be taken during wildland firefighting?
Avoid unburned fuels, position off road, close windows, use anchor points.
What is Level I Staging?
Initial staging for multi-company responses; units stop 1–2 blocks away and await orders.
What is Level II Staging?
Used in large incidents with multiple resources, assigned a specific staging area.
What is a ‘Base’ in incident management?
Central location for logistics, personnel coordination, and initial orders.
How should apparatus be used to protect firefighters on highways?
Position to shield from traffic; may block one additional lane for safety.
Why should firefighters avoid stepping beyond the tailboard in highway operations?
To reduce the risk of being struck by vehicles.
What is the best approach direction for hazmat incidents?
From uphill and upwind.
What is the purpose of control zones at hazmat scenes?
To regulate access and protect personnel based on hazard level.
How should hoses be laid across active railroad tracks?
Only if confirmed that rail traffic is stopped; otherwise use overhead or under-rail methods.
Where should apparatus be parked near railroads?
Same side as incident, no closer than 30 feet from tracks.
What positioning considerations exist for EMS incidents?
Ensure ambulance loading access, protect from traffic, avoid exhaust near patients.
What is the recommended intake connection distance for dry hydrants?
15 inches (375 mm).
What is the specific weight of water per cubic foot and per gallon?
62.4 lb/ft³ and 8.3 lb/gal.
What is the expansion ratio of steam at 212°F and at 500°F?
1700:1 at 212°F and approximately 2400:1 at 500°F.
What is water’s primary extinguishment method on Class A fires?
Cooling by heat absorption.
Why is water not suitable for fires involving sodium or combustible metals?
It reacts violently and can cause explosions or spread fire.
What does high surface tension in water affect?
Penetration into dense materials; wetting agents help reduce it.
What is the force exerted by a 1 ft high water column?
0.434 psi.
How much elevation is needed to generate 1 psi of water pressure?
2.304 feet.
What principle explains why pressure is the same in all directions in a confined fluid?
Pascal’s Law (3rd Principle of Fluid Pressure).
What principle states that fluid pressure is independent of vessel shape?
6th Principle of Fluid Pressure.
What is atmospheric pressure at sea level in psi and mmHg?
14.7 psi and 759 mmHg.
What is head pressure and how is it calculated?
The pressure due to elevation; ft ÷ 2.304 = psi.
What is the primary cause of friction loss in fire hose?
Contact of water molecules with hose surfaces and internal friction.
What effect does older hose have on friction loss?
Up to 50% more friction loss than new hose.
How does friction loss relate to hose length?
Directly proportional — doubling the length doubles the loss.
What is the relationship between hose diameter and friction loss?
Inversely proportional to the fifth power of the diameter.
What causes water hammer?
Sudden stop of water flow, creating a pressure surge.
How can water hammer be prevented?
Close valves and nozzles slowly in stages.
What are the three basic rates of water consumption used in system design?
Average Daily, Maximum Daily, and Peak Hourly Consumption.
What type of valve visually shows its open or closed position?
Indicating valve (e.g., PIV, OS&Y).
What is the purpose of backflow prevention in private water systems?
To prevent contamination of municipal water supplies.
What are the three methods of moving water in municipal systems?
Direct pumping, gravity, and combination systems.
What is the advantage of a combination water system?
Redundant pumping and elevated tanks maintain pressure and supply.
What are the three types of water mains in a grid system?
Primary feeders, secondary feeders, and distributors.
What hazard can sedimentation and encrustation cause in water mains?
Reduced effective diameter and increased friction loss.
What is critical velocity?
The point at which water flow becomes turbulent and reduces flow efficiency.
What are the four principles of friction loss?
- Varies with length, 2. Increases with square of velocity, 3. Inversely with diameter⁵, 4. Unaffected by pressure.
What is the purpose of elevated storage tanks in water systems?
Provide emergency storage and maintain pressure during peak demand or failure.
What is a dead-end hydrant?
A hydrant fed from only one direction, prone to low pressure.
Why should hydrants be flushed periodically?
To remove sediment and maintain water quality and flow.
What are the three basic fire streams?
Solid, fog, and broken streams.
How is a solid fire stream created?
Using a smooth bore nozzle with a fixed orifice.
What nozzle pressure is typical for solid stream handlines?
50 psi (350 kPa).
What nozzle pressure is typical for solid stream master stream appliances?
80 psi (560 kPa).
What is the formula for calculating GPM from a solid stream nozzle (customary)?
GPM = 29.7 × d² × √NP
What is the metric formula for solid stream nozzle discharge?
L/min = 0.067 × d² × √NP
How are fog streams formed?
By deflecting water against an obstruction to create finely divided particles.
What nozzle type maintains constant GPM at all stream patterns?
Constant flow fog nozzle.
What is a selectable gallonage nozzle?
A nozzle with adjustable flow settings predetermined before use.
What is a high pressure fog nozzle used for?
Wildland fires, flowing 8–15 GPM at up to 800 psi.
What is the maximum flow rate for handline nozzles?
350 GPM (1,400 L/min).
What is the minimum flow rate for master stream nozzles?
Greater than 350 GPM (1,400 L/min).
What are the three types of master stream appliances?
Fixed, combination, and portable monitors.
What types of master stream appliances are found on aerial devices?
Elevated master streams.
What is the flow rate and pressure of a piercing nozzle?
125 GPM at 100 psi.
What is a chimney nozzle?
A solid brass or steel device producing a fine mist for chimney flues, flowing 1.5–3 GPM.
What is the nozzle reaction formula for a solid stream (customary)?
NR = 1.57 × d² × NP
What is the nozzle reaction formula for a fog stream (customary)?
NR = 0.0505 × Q × √NP
What is the ‘rule of thumb’ for estimating nozzle reaction (solid stream)?
NR ≈ Q / 3
What is the ‘rule of thumb’ for fog stream nozzle reaction?
NR ≈ Q / 2
Why is excessive nozzle reaction dangerous?
It can injure firefighters or hinder hoseline control.
What is the main function of a master stream device?
To apply large volumes of water from a fixed position.
What happens if driver/operator supplies incorrect pressure to a selectable gallonage nozzle?
It will not flow the selected gallonage correctly.
What allows automatic fog nozzles to adapt to variable flow?
A spring-activated device adjusts the baffle opening.
Why are cellar nozzles often used with inline shut-off valves?
For safety and ease of operation.
What types of monitors are considered combination monitors?
Monitors that can be apparatus-mounted or detached for remote use.
What are piercing nozzles used for?
Aircraft fires, car fires, or fires in inaccessible voids.
What are the components of Total Pressure Loss (TPL)?
Friction Loss, Elevation Pressure Loss, and Appliance Loss.
What is the formula for friction loss (customary)?
FL = C × Q² × L
What does each variable in the friction loss formula represent?
C = coefficient, Q = flow rate ÷ 100, L = hose length ÷ 100.
When is appliance pressure loss considered insignificant?
When flow is less than 350 GPM (1,400 L/min).
How much pressure loss is added for each appliance at ≥ 350 GPM?
10 psi (70 kPa).
How much pressure loss is added for master stream appliances?
25 psi (175 kPa).
What is the formula for elevation pressure loss (customary)?
EP = 0.5 × Height (ft).
What is the formula for elevation pressure loss in multistory buildings?
EP = 5 psi × (Stories – 1).
What is the pressure loss in 200 ft of 2½” hose at 200 GPM?
16 psi.
What is the pressure loss in 150 ft of 1¾” hose at 150 GPM?
52.3 psi.
What is the total pressure loss for 200 ft of 1¾” hose at 180 GPM with 10 ft elevation?
105.4 psi.
How is pump discharge pressure (PDP) calculated?
PDP = Nozzle Pressure + Total Pressure Loss (TPL).
What is the formula for Net Pump Discharge Pressure from a pressurized source?
NPDP = PDP – Intake Pressure.
How is PDP set when supplying multiple hoselines?
Based on the line with the highest pressure requirement.
What pressure is added for elevated waterways with master stream appliances?
25 psi.
What nozzle pressures are typical for fog nozzles?
100 psi (standard), 50 or 75 psi (low pressure).
What is the pump pressure loss for aerial piping bends in elevated waterways?
Approximately 25 psi, though varies by manufacturer.
What should a driver/operator do to determine pressure loss specific to apparatus?
Consult manufacturer or conduct field testing.
How is friction loss calculated in wyed hoselines of equal length?
Add FL from one attack line + FL from supply + appliance and elevation losses.
What must be done if wyed or manifold lines have unequal lengths?
Calculate each line’s FL separately; gate down lower-pressure lines.
What are the four types of hose layouts?
Single, Multiple Equal, Wyed, and Siamesed.
What is the advantage of siamesed hoselines?
Reduced friction loss—approximately 25% less than a single line.
How much pressure is added for a Siamese appliance at flows > 350 GPM?
10 psi.
What’s the friction loss for 300 ft of 4-inch hose at 400 GPM?
9.6 psi.
How can drivers avoid overpressuring lower-pressure lines in multi-line setups?
Use gated discharges or valves to reduce pressure.
What PPE should driver/operators wear when operating pump panels?
Full PPE to reduce injury risk during mechanical failures.
Why is wheel chocking recommended even when the parking brake is set?
For added safety in case of brake failure or unintentional movement.
What is the first step after exiting the cab to operate the pump from tank water?
Chock the wheels.
What should be used to cool the pump if no water is flowing?
Tank fill line or circulator valve to prevent overheating.
What is the minimum residual pressure to maintain from a pressurized source?
20 psi (140 kPa).
Why must the bleeder valve on the intake be opened when transitioning to an external source?
To release air and prevent disruption of attack lines.
What is a four-way hydrant valve used for?
Allows uninterrupted supply transition from hydrant pressure to pump pressure.
Why might forward lay be insufficient in long hose stretches?
Available hydrant pressure may be inadequate; second pumper needed.
When is reverse lay typically used?
When the first pumper arrives at the fire and must stay at scene while a second pumper lays hose to a water source.
What is the key function of a transfer valve in a two-stage pump?
To switch between pressure (series) and volume (parallel) modes.
Why should throttle not be increased below 20 psi intake pressure?
Risk of pump cavitation.
How do you estimate additional water available from a hydrant?
Using the Percentage, First-Digit, or Squaring-the-Lines Method.
What causes pump cavitation?
Water discharges faster than it enters the pump, forming air bubbles.
What is the ideal lift height for drafting to retain full pump capacity?
10 feet (3 meters).
What is the minimum water depth required over and around a strainer during drafting?
24 inches (600 mm).
What is a floating strainer used for?
Shallow water drafting; reduces whirlpool and debris risk.
What does high vacuum reading near 22 inches Hg indicate?
Pump is near maximum capacity; risk of cavitation increases.
What are symptoms of cavitation?
Popping sounds, pressure fluctuation, gravel noise, no gauge change with throttle.
What type of water requires flushing the pump system afterward?
Nonpotable water with salt, sediment, or chemicals.
What pressure does atmospheric pressure drop to at 5,000 ft elevation?
Approximately 12.2 psi (85 kPa).
How can you compensate for increased lift during drafting?
Use larger diameter or additional intake hose.
What is the purpose of a jet siphon?
Uses Venturi effect to create water movement for water transfer.
What is the maximum rated lift for NFPA/UL fire pumps?
25 feet, though only 60% capacity remains at 20 feet.
Why is it better to lay 100 ft of supply hose to a better drafting site?
To improve water quality and reduce friction loss.
What causes loss of prime during operation?
Air leaks, suction hose defects, sudden discharge opening, or whirlpools.
What action is recommended when booster tank is empty and tank-to-pump valve does not seal?
Prime cannot be achieved; refill tank or repair valve.
How does salt water affect pump operation?
Causes corrosion; requires fresh water flushing afterward.
How should strainers be supported in sloped terrain?
Use rope, ladders, or metal objects to elevate and stabilize strainer.
What causes suction hose inner liner to collapse?
Vacuum stress during high lift or defective hose.
What is the general pump discharge pressure for sprinkler/standpipe FDCs if unknown?
150 psi (1,050 kPa).
What are the three elements needed to create foam?
Foam concentrate, water, and air.
What is eduction in foam systems?
Using the Venturi effect to mix foam concentrate with water in a nozzle or proportioner.
Why is mixing different foam concentrates during incidents problematic?
It can clog eductors and reduce foam quality due to incompatibility.
What are the two main categories of Class B fuels?
Hydrocarbon fuels and polar solvents.
What foam type is needed for polar solvents?
Alcohol-resistant foam.
What does ‘miscible’ mean in reference to polar solvents?
They mix with water in all proportions.
What are the four methods of foam proportioning?
Induction, injection, batch mixing, and premixing.
What is the primary method of foam discharge in CAFS?
Compressed air injected into foam solution before discharge.
What does the Jet Ratio Controller (JRC) do?
Supplies foam concentrate to a self-educting master stream from distances up to 3,000 feet.
What is the proportioning range for Class A foam?
0.1% to 1.0%.
What are the recommended Class A foam percentages for fire attack with standard fog nozzles?
0.2% to 0.5%.
What is the expansion ratio for medium-expansion foam?
20:1 to 200:1.
What is the formula to calculate application rate for Class B foam?
Application Rate = Nozzle Flow Rate ÷ Fire Area.
What is the foam type that forms an air/vapor excluding film?
Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF).
What is burnback resistance?
The foam’s ability to resist flame re-ignition after initial extinguishment.
What is the main hazard of discharging foam into natural water bodies?
It reduces oxygen levels and can be harmful to aquatic life.
What are durable agents made of?
Water-absorbent polymers used for fire blocking and structure pretreatment.
What is the correct nozzle/eductor back pressure limit for in-line foam eductors?
70% of the inlet pressure.
Why should foam tanks be airtight?
To prevent the formation of surface film on the foam concentrate.
What is batch mixing primarily used for?
Class A and regular AFFF foams when no other system is available.
What are the three main foam application methods for Class B fuels?
Roll-on, bank-down, and rain-down.
How should AR-AFFF be applied to polar solvents?
Gently, to allow membrane formation; use aspirating nozzles for best results.
What is the typical shelf life of properly stored synthetic Class B foam?
20–25 years.
What are compressed air foam systems (CAFS) best known for?
Creating high-quality, clingy foam with long drainage time.
What is the advantage of foam nozzle eductors?
Nozzle and eductor are matched for proper flow and pressure.
What is the biggest drawback of batch mixing?
The entire tank must be emptied before changing foam percentage or type.
What can happen if you exceed the rated GPM of an in-line eductor?
Foam quality may decrease or stop entirely.
What device allows foam and water to be delivered from different outlets at the same time?
Bypass-type balanced pressure proportioners.
What type of foam has the highest expansion ratio?
High-expansion foam (200:1 to 1000:1).
What method uses foam solution sprayed into the air to fall gently onto a fuel surface?
Rain-down method.
What is the primary purpose of aerial fire apparatus?
To place personnel and/or water streams in elevated positions.
What are the three NFPA® 1901 categories of aerial devices?
Aerial ladders, elevating platforms, and water towers.
What structural advantage do truss ladders provide?
They are lighter than solid beams with equal strength due to triangular stress distribution.
What is the typical pressure in hydraulic aerial systems?
May exceed 3,500 psi (24,500 kPa).
What is the function of the selector valve in hydraulic systems?
Directs fluid to stabilizers or aerial device; must be preset during inspection.
What are the types of hydraulic pumps used in aerial systems?
Load sensing piston, rotary vane, and rotary gear positive-displacement pumps.
What function do counterbalance valves serve?
Prevent aerial motion if hydraulic lines fail.
What is a trunnion?
The pivoting end of a piston rod in a hydraulic hoisting cylinder.
How much can modern elevating platforms typically flow?
Up to 2,000 GPM (8,000 L/min).
What are the three types of elevating platforms?
Aerial ladder platforms, telescoping platforms, and articulating platforms.
What is the minimum floor space of an elevating platform per NFPA®?
14 square feet (1.3 m²).
What is the maximum uncharged load capacity of a platform?
750 lbs (375 kg); 500 lbs (250 kg) when charged.
What does the fog curtain nozzle under platforms do?
Creates a protective fog shield and must flow at least 75 GPM (300 L/min).
What are the primary uses of articulating aerial platforms?
Rescue, ventilation, elevated master streams, and access to upper floors.
What is the purpose of a pinnable waterway?
Allows monitor positioning at base or tip depending on operation (rescue or fire suppression).
What does NFPA® 1901 require for communication on aerials?
A two-way system with hands-free capability at the tip/platform.
What does a tiller operator interlock do?
Prevents the vehicle from starting unless the tiller operator is seated or engages override.
What is the purpose of a deadman foot switch?
Ensures intentional activation of aerial movement.
What happens if a waterway monitor isn’t anchored properly before charging?
It can launch from pressure and cause damage or injury.
What is the maximum nozzle movement range for detachable ladder pipes?
15° to either side of center.
What is the flow range of water towers?
1,000 to 5,000 GPM (4,000 to 20,000 L/min).
What are key safety features of hoisting cylinders?
Safety valves that lock oil in place during leaks to prevent collapse.
What kind of lighting is recommended near the tip of the aerial device?
Floodlighting, though not required by NFPA® 1901.
What are the four standard aerial apparatus control levers (right to left)?
Elevation, rotation, extension, and platform controls.
What are the key power generation options on aerials?
Inverters, portable generators, and vehicle-mounted generators.
What NFPA® standard governs breathing air systems if installed?
NFPA® 1989.
What is the danger of exceeding air system pressure in aerial breathing systems?
It can damage moisture filters and cause pressure loss.
What is the most common hydraulic tool power source on aerials?
Hydraulic pump powered by PTO, electric motor, gas engine, or compressed air.
What size ladder is required for fourth or fifth story access?
Pole ladders (≥ 40 ft or 12 m).
What is required testing frequency for aerial apparatus according to NFPA® 1911?
Annually for service tests, every 5 years for nondestructive testing.
What is the most important factor when initially placing an aerial apparatus?
Getting it right the first time due to fixed reach and limited repositioning options.
What building height affects SOP placement of engines and aerials?
5 stories (≈60 ft); aerials outside engines for <5 stories, inside for >5.
What is the ‘collapse zone’?
Area beneath a wall that would be impacted if it collapsed.
Why is a low angle with long extension discouraged?
It increases stress and reduces load capacity of the aerial device.
What term describes loads involving motion, such as wind or vibration?
Dynamic load.
How should aerials be positioned in windy conditions?
Parallel to wind, minimize extension, operate over front or rear.
What clearance should be maintained from power lines energized from 600–50,000 volts?
10 feet (3 m).
What should you do if a vehicle becomes energized by a power line?
Stay in or on the vehicle until it’s de-energized and grounded by professionals.
What is the best practice for jackknifing a tillered aerial?
60° from in-line with aerial extended away for maximum stability.
When should aerial devices avoid supported positioning?
When a structure is weakened or shows collapse signs.
What direction should you approach incidents from when possible?
Uphill and upwind.
What should be done in dead-end access situations?
Back apparatus in to allow a quick escape.
What surface warning sign appears during hot weather?
Shiny/glassy ‘bleeding’ asphalt.
What should never be done with warning lights on highways at night?
Never shut off all warning lights.
What is the minimum clearance from railroad tracks?
25 feet (7.5 m).
What must be confirmed before raising an aerial over railroad tracks?
Train traffic is halted and device is 25 ft above rails.
Where should apparatus be positioned on bridges?
On separate spans or lanes; not all units on same area.
What is the recommended angle of aerial operation for best stability?
Inline with the vehicle’s longitudinal axis (front or rear).
What are key hazards to avoid during structural incidents?
Collapse zones, falling debris, roof signs, parapet walls.
What is the priority for aerial placement during medical incidents?
Shielding personnel and providing ambulance access.
What causes excessive stress on aerial devices?
Low angles, long extensions, sudden movements, heat, wind, torsion.
What should driver/operators avoid at hazmat incidents?
Parking over manholes/storm drains or approaching from downwind/downhill.
Why must aerials avoid blocking aircraft slides?
Slides are primary evacuation paths and deploy automatically from doors or wings.
Where should aerials park at petroleum storage sites?
Outside the dike walls unless a roadway is built atop the dike.
What does OSHA recommend for power line clearance during construction operations?
20 ft for <350 kV lines, 50 ft for >350 kV.
What should you do if someone is trapped in an energized vehicle?
Do NOT touch them—wait for power company; instruct them to stay inside unless fire threatens.
What must be considered when operating aerials near bridges?
Load capacity, wind, movement, superstructures, and safe staggered parking.
Why avoid placing apparatus on vaulted surfaces?
They may collapse due to being above underground voids like basements or culverts.
What does ‘Look Up and Live’ refer to?
Checking for power lines before and during aerial operation.
What is the function of stabilizer pads?
Distribute aerial weight more evenly on ground surfaces to prevent sinking or tilting.
What causes most aerial tip-overs during stabilization?
Operator error and improper jack placement on unfamiliar apparatus.
What does short-jacking mean?
Deploying stabilizers to unequal lengths, often due to space restrictions.
What risk does short-jacking introduce?
Gravity circle may extend beyond base of stability, risking overturning.
What are the three types of stabilizers?
Post-type, box (H-style), and fulcrum-type (A-frame, X-style).
What is the gravity circle?
The lateral shift of the center of gravity when the aerial rotates or extends.
When does the gravity circle become dangerous?
When it extends beyond the base of stability.
What action can broaden the base of stability?
Full extension and deployment of stabilizers.
Why should PTO only be engaged when properly positioned?
To prevent drivetrain or pump system damage.
What must be done before stabilizer deployment?
Activate PTO, chock wheels, and check terrain for stability.
What tool is commonly used to estimate stabilizer travel?
Short pike pole or firefighter’s arm span.
What is a stabilizer shoe?
Flat metal pad at the bottom of the stabilizer to distribute load.
Why avoid placing stabilizers over manholes, curbs, or water covers?
These may collapse or provide unstable footing.
What is cribbing used for?
To supplement stabilizer support on unstable or uneven surfaces.
What slope is acceptable for lateral grade correction?
Up to 5% or approximately 3°.
How should stabilizers be deployed on lateral grade?
Lower uphill side first, then downhill side to level apparatus.
What direction is safest for aerial operation on slopes?
Over the uphill side of the apparatus.
What happens when operating on longitudinal grade?
Ladder rungs no longer remain level, introducing lateral stresses.
Why are icy or snowy conditions dangerous for stabilization?
Melting causes voids under pads; surfaces become slippery.
How can stability be enhanced on icy ground?
Use sand or friction material—never salt, which reduces traction.
How do stabilizer interlocks work?
Prevent aerial operation unless stabilizers are deployed and locked.
What provides mechanical locking of jacks?
Steel pins inserted through post holes below the jack housing.
What must be checked before retracting stabilizers?
Ensure personnel and equipment are clear; remove safety pins.
What is the correct order to retract stabilizers?
Reverse the order they were deployed to avoid chassis stress.
What must be done after raising stabilizers?
Disengage PTO and return stabilizer pads to storage.
How do manual stabilizers differ from hydraulic ones?
They require manual arm extension and screw jack adjustment.
What angle provides maximum stability in tillered aerials?
60° between tractor and trailer with ladder operated outward.
What should be avoided when jackknifing tiller apparatus?
Angles >90° due to poor stability and possible damage.
What should be done after setting tiller angle?
Set all brakes, including trailer axle brake, and deploy stabilizers.
What does Skill Sheet 18-1 cover?
Steps to deploy, lock, and stow hydraulic stabilizers.
What does Skill Sheet 18-2 cover?
Steps to stabilize a tractor-trailer aerial apparatus.
What must a pedestal operator be ready to do during tower ladder operation?
Override unsafe basket movements and warn of danger.
What is the first priority before climbing or descending an aerial ladder?
Ensure the device is in position and stable.
When must personnel be tethered while on aerial devices?
Any time not actively climbing, descending, entering, or exiting.
Where should safety tethers be anchored?
To structural features only, never to cables, wires, or non-structural elements.
Why must ladder belts and tethers meet NFPA® 1983?
To ensure fall protection equipment meets life safety standards.
What is a fall hazard during aerial operation?
Operating with unsecured personnel on a moving device.
What is the danger of extending/retracting aerials with people on them?
Pinch and crush hazards from moving rungs and sections.
What is required before rotating or elevating aerials with personnel aboard?
All personnel must be tethered and communication maintained.
Why is using wire rope near pulleys a hazard?
It creates pinch points and tension-related injury risks.
What should be avoided when giving rotation commands?
Ambiguous terms like ‘left/right’ without clarifying viewpoint.
What is the primary control position on an aerial apparatus?
Lower control station, typically on the turntable.
When can secondary controls be used?
Only with a trained operator present at the primary controls.
What must secondary control operators be aware of?
Tip movement, ladder personnel, water flow, and electrical hazards.
What is the purpose of the load chart?
To determine safe operating limits based on extension, elevation, and conditions.
What are electronic load systems used for?
Monitoring aerial stability, but not replacing operator judgment.
What sequence should be followed when raising a telescoping aerial device?
Elevate, rotate, extend, and then lower to objective.
What is feathering in aerial control?
Slow, smooth movements to avoid dynamic stress or hydraulic spikes.
What does Skill Sheet 19-1 cover?
Raising and lowering a telescoping aerial without a platform.
How does the operation of articulating aerials differ?
Includes concern for knuckle movement and requires additional spatial awareness.
What are pinnable waterways?
Fixed nozzles that can be mounted at the tip or one section lower.
Why is video monitoring helpful on aerial platforms?
It enhances safety by allowing operators to see tip hazards remotely.
What is the 75-80-80 guideline?
75° elevation, 80% extension, 80 psi nozzle pressure for safe ops.
What are key dangers of detachable waterways?
No tip control, exposure risk, and hose/nozzle failure risk.
How does cold weather affect aerial operation?
Increases oil viscosity, forms ice, and adds weight to aerial device.
What is ice shrugging?
Slowly extending/retracting aerial device to remove ice buildup.
What are signs of heat damage to an aerial?
Discoloration, deformed welds, warped metal, improper function.
When must a damaged aerial be removed from service?
Immediately, until EVT repairs and NFPA® 1911 retesting is complete.
What signs indicate aerial mechanical/power failure?
Unusual noise, fluid leaks, gauge abnormalities, or aerial drift.
What action is taken if aerial failure occurs?
Stop operation, remove personnel, bed device, and take unit out of service.
When can below-grade operations be performed?
Only if the manufacturer approves and within rated limits.
What are the four fireground strategies for aerial devices?
Rescue, Ventilation, Elevated Fire Attack, Exposure Protection.
What should be announced before aerial master stream operations?
Interior attack crews must be notified and clear.
What is the safest rescue approach with an aerial device?
Upwind, level grade, no obstructions, with the turntable upwind of the target.
Why should you avoid contacting a building with an aerial ladder during victim boarding?
It can cause twisting and potential failure if the opposite beam bends.
What is the ‘knee-sit method’?
Rescue method where victim sits on firefighter’s knee while descending the aerial ladder.
What angle should the blitz attack stream enter a window?
Approximately 30 degrees upward toward the ceiling.
What is the first priority during rescue operations?
Victims most severely threatened.
What does ‘platform placement’ depend on?
Rescue method: either lifting over rail or entering through access gate.
What is required for rope rescue using aerials?
NFPA® 1983 compliant equipment and personnel trained to NFPA® 1670.
When should a Stokes basket be used with an aerial?
When victims are unconscious or unable to climb down.
Why are aerial devices not ideal for water rescues?
They are not designed for lateral forces and may become unstable or damaged.
How should aerials be used for ventilation?
From the unburned side, with 6 ft of ladder extending past roof edge.
Why should you avoid breaking windows during exposure protection?
May worsen fire spread and increase water damage.
How should fog streams be positioned for cross ventilation?
Slightly above window and to the upwind side.
What is the role of elevated standpipes?
Provide hoselines to upper levels when interior standpipe systems are inoperable.
What stream should be used to avoid pushing fire into unburned areas?
Solid or straight stream aimed from the unburned side.
What is a significant risk of foam use in elevated master streams?
Wind can break up the foam due to its high air content.
How should apparatus be placed for exposure protection?
With a clear escape route and ability to swing stream between fire and exposure.
What happens if rope is anchored to the ground while using an aerial device?
Device bears double the load, increasing collapse risk.
What does Skill Sheet 20-1 cover?
Steps for deploying elevated master stream operations.
What is the main advantage of articulating aerial devices for parapets?
Ability to reach over parapet and set platform directly on roof level.
Why must extension locks be engaged before aerial rescues?
To reduce twisting and increase structural rigidity of the aerial device.
What are indicators for switching to a defensive attack?
Unsafe conditions for handlines, IC decision, or high water needs (e.g., attic fires).
What hazard may result from elevated stream use on structure fires?
Structural collapse due to water weight (2,000 lb per 250 gpm).
How can aerial devices aid in aircraft rescue?
Providing elevated access to aircraft or assisting with ventilation and thermal imaging.
