psych exam Flashcards
ANTHROPOLOGY
Mary Leakey
Mary Leakey was a British paleoanthropologist who made significant contributions to the understanding of human evolution. She is best known for her discoveries of fossilized hominid remains, including the famous footprints at Laetoli in Tanzania, which provided evidence of early bipedalism.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Frans de Waal
Frans de Waal is a Dutch primatologist and ethologist known for his work on the behavior and social intelligence of primates, particularly chimpanzees and bonobos. His research has highlighted the similarities between human and primate social behaviors, including empathy, altruism, and conflict resolution.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Alister Hardy
The aquatic ape theory
proven false
Alister Hardy thought that early hominids developed bypedalism by spending a lot of time in the water
He also thought that humans would have their heads above water since we need oxygen, which is how we are using our legs
This is proven false since there is no evidence, and if we were to evolve from sea animals like crocodiles, we would look very different
British marine biologist and a pioneer in the study of marine plankton. He later turned his focus to the study of religious experiences, founding the Religious Experience Research Centre to investigate the nature and significance of spiritual and mystical experiences.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Robin Dunbar
British anthropologist and evolutionary psychologist known for the “Dunbar’s number,” which suggests that humans can maintain stable social relationships with about 150 people. His work explores the evolutionary basis of social behavior and the role of social networks in human evolution.
SOCIOLOGY
C. Wright Mills
“The sociologist imagination”
Reminded society that sociologists exist to change society
pointed out that society was still rife with social problems
American sociologist best known for his critiques of modern industrial societies and his emphasis on the role of power elites. His influential works, such as “The Sociological Imagination,” encourage sociologists to connect personal experiences with larger social structures. Mills argued that the concentration of power in the hands of a small elite shaped the political, economic, and military landscape of modern societies.
ANTHROPOLOGY
AR Radcliffe-Brown
Structural functionalism
AR Raddcliff-Brown thinks that individuals don’t matter as society, because culture is maintained by instututions. Relationships matter more since individuals are replaceable and no one matters as much
British social anthropologist who is considered one of the founders of structural-functionalism, a framework that analyzes society through its interrelated structures and their functions. His work emphasized the importance of social institutions in maintaining societal stability.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Michel Foucault
- languages are important for existence
- literaly analysis appliance
- question everything
- critique of metanarratives
- argue against method and evaluation
- focus on power relations and hegemony
- question everything in the west (knowledge)
French philosopher and social theorist known for his work on the relationship between power, knowledge, and social institutions. His influential works, such as “Discipline and Punish” and “The History of Sexuality,” explore how societal norms and power dynamics shape human behavior and thought.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Bronislaw Malinowski
Individuals together is what keeps society together. Individuals are the most important part of society because they make the choices, not corporations/instututions
Polish-British anthropologist who is often regarded as one of the founders of modern social anthropology. He is known for his fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands and for developing the method of participant observation, emphasizing the importance of understanding cultural practices from the insider’s perspective.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Edward Sapir
American anthropologist-linguist
Studies ways which language and culture are connected
American anthropologist and linguist who made significant contributions to the study of language and its relationship to culture. He is known for his work on Native American languages and for the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which suggests that the structure of a language influences its speakers’ worldview and cognition.
PSYCHOLOGY
Edward Thorndike
law of effect theory
When the cat pulled the string, the door opened
Trial and error
If there’s a reward, the action becomes stamped in the mind
The greater the satisfaction, the greater the stimulus
American psychologist whose work on animal behavior and the learning process led to the development of the theory of connectionism. He is famous for the “Law of Effect,” which states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated. His work laid the groundwork for operant conditioning.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Ferdinand de Saussure
Structural linguistics
thinks that language buried on signs (the signified and the signifier)
Swiss linguist whose ideas laid the foundation for many developments in the study of language and semiotics. He is best known for his theory of the linguistic sign and for establishing structural linguistics, which analyzes language as a system of interrelated elements.
ANTHROPOLOGY
JK Smail
Disagrees with thomas
he said that by 2050, population would be 20B, meaning we would suffer
His theory: The reason why we overpopulate: medicine and agriculture
We need to prioratize overpopulation
American anthropologist who contributed to the understanding of human evolution and anthropology. His work often emphasized the long-term evolutionary processes that have shaped human behavior and culture.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Thomas Malthus
Studies populations
He said populations expand geometrically (double)
Food expands erithmatically (limited)
Populations are limited from a lack of food
English cleric and scholar known for his theories on population growth. His most famous work, “An Essay on the Principle of Population,” posits that populations tend to grow exponentially while resources grow arithmetically, leading to inevitable shortages and societal challenges.
SOCIOLOGY
Ibn Khaldun
Arab philosopher and historian
The kitab al-lbar
precurser of sociology
Argued that older groups will be taken over by younger people (status)
The first figure to talk about society like a sociologist
Not a sociologist, but a philosopher
Asabiyyah
14th-century Arab historiographer and historian, often regarded as one of the fathers of sociology and historiography. His most notable work, “Muqaddimah” (Introduction), presents a comprehensive theory of historical and social processes, including the rise and fall of civilizations, the dynamics of social cohesion, and the role of economics and politics in societal development.
SOCIOLOGY
Émile Durkheim
one of the founders of sociology
“organic metaphor’- society is a human body which has small parts
First sociologist
More positive than Karl Marx
people are governed by social facts
There’s “facts” that are not applicable to be true by some people
He believed as time went on, people change, and changes happen (sociological method)
Argues that crime can be normal only if it’s useful to society
Disgareed with marx about religion being bad, he believed that religion serves a funtion in society and that religion helps maintain solidarity
2 types of solidarity:
organic: people have to adapt to certain situations
mechanical: following rules and living in harmony
conclusion: religion is essential, encourages mutual respect, proves change over time, adapted because society also changed. He appreciated that religion can serv as a powerful form of social glue holding people together.
French sociologist who is often considered one of the founding figures of sociology. He is known for his studies on social integration, the division of labor, and the collective conscience. His major works include “The Division of Labor in Society,” “The Rules of Sociological Method,” and “Suicide,” where he explored the social factors influencing individual behavior.
SOCIOLOGY
Max Weber
theory of rationalization
actions are dependant on efficiency
rationalization helps society function efficently
Example: you get promoted because it helps tge higher-ups, get your “best” work
Buraccucracy is better than revolution
He compared history like a game of clue
Rationalization: people are replaceable
referred to society as an “iron cage”
The idea that you are always trapped in everything
Always controlled
Agreed with Karl Marx about the harm of power, and that it wasn’t just money separating group, but it was gender, age, etc. that is affected by wealth
Thinks that everyone should be equal
Agreed with Emile about religion being essential but concluded that religion didn’t always lead to love
religious beliefs/values led to social changes
not all outcomes are possible in society, there are “tracks”
SOCIOLOGY
Auguste comte
Positivism
Saw the french revolution
positivism= natural world could be productively used to study the world
1. looking at sciences, scientific investigation, knowledge
2. laws
3. science + laws = change
4. science can be used to build a better world
Three stages of society in progress
1. Theological stage (religion)
2. Metaphysical stage
3. scientific stage
he was seen as too broad
French philosopher and sociologist who is credited with founding the discipline of sociology and the doctrine of positivism. He proposed that societies develop through three stages: theological, metaphysical, and positive. Comte’s work, “Course in Positive Philosophy,” outlines his vision of sociology as a science dedicated to understanding and improving society through empirical observation and logical analysis.
SOCIOLOGY
Karl Marx
First of the three thinkers
commented on capitalism, economic system
WI Freidrich Engels
Conflict theory:
competition of power
Inbalance of wealth
powerful instutions harm the poor
conflict of burgious and palitarian
He believed everything was a competition of power/money
He predicted that the lower class world
Conflict +revolution = societal evolution to Marx
Believed religion was bad because he understood that society was fundemental for gaining power
German philosopher, economist, and political theorist best known for his theories about capitalism and communism. His works, including “The Communist Manifesto” and “Das Kapital,” critique the effects of capitalism on labor, productivity, and economic development and advocate for a classless society.
SOCIOLOGY
Talcott Parsons
Espoured functionalism: the same model of something exists for a reason since it works
He thought Reisman’s argument was a good thing
controvertial (for example, murder or racism)
American sociologist known for his development of the theory of social action and structural functionalism. His work aimed to create a unified theory for understanding how societies function and maintain stability. Key contributions include his books “The Structure of Social Action” and “The Social System,” where he introduced concepts like the AGIL framework (Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration, Latency) to analyze social systems.
SOCIOLOGY
George Simmel
German sociologist and philosopher who made significant contributions to the development of sociology as a distinct academic discipline. He is known for his work on social forms and interactions, including the study of dyads and triads, social distance, and the philosophy of money. His influential works include “The Philosophy of Money” and “On Individuality and Social Forms.”
SOCIOLOGY
George Herbert Mead
Believed that symbols are key to understanding society
Symbols define our relationships
Without symbols, we wouldn’t know how to interact with each other
American philosopher and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of social psychology and the symbolic interactionist school of thought. His work focused on the development of the self and social identity through interaction with others. His seminal work, “Mind, Self, and Society,” explores how individuals develop self-awareness and social roles through communication and social interaction.
SOCIOLOGY
Harold Garfinkel
The breaching experiments
intentional breaking of social norms and analyzed people’s reactions to the breach
American sociologist and the founder of ethnomethodology, a methodological approach that studies the ways in which people produce and maintain social order in everyday life. His book “Studies in Ethnomethodology” introduced key concepts and methods for understanding the implicit social norms and practices that underlie human interactions.
SOCIOLOGY
Pierre Bourdieau
Specialized in knowledge
Human capital and cultural capital
French sociologist and anthropologist known for his theory of practice and concepts such as habitus, capital, and field. His work examines how power and social inequality are maintained through cultural and symbolic means. Key works include “Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste” and “Outline of a Theory of Practice.”
SOCIOLOGY
WI Thomas
Self fulfilling prphecy
Reprecussions of self systemic discrimination, (if you see yourslef descriminated you will be descriminated yourself)
American sociologist and one of the pioneers of the Chicago School of sociology. He is best known for the Thomas theorem, which states, “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.” This idea highlights the subjective nature of social reality and its impact on human behavior. His notable work includes “The Polish Peasant in Europe and America,” co-authored with Florian Znaniecki.
SOCIOLOGY
Douglas McAdam
resource mobalization theory
social movements from when people share grievance and are able to mobalize resources and take action
American sociologist known for his work on social movements, political sociology, and the civil rights movement. His influential book “Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970” introduced the political process model, which emphasizes the role of political opportunities, mobilizing structures, and framing processes in the development of social movements.
SOCIOLOGY
Ferdinand Tönnies
Born in germany
two ideas
geimenschaft and gesselschaft
Schaft is unity
geimen is community, the idea that people live together and also have similar interests. gessel means society, where people live together but they may not share interests. Over time, he thinks that society will be gesselschaft because there are too many people, so it would be hard to be close with everyone
German sociologist and philosopher best known for his distinction between two types of social groups: Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (society). In his book “Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft,” he explores how traditional, close-knit communities (Gemeinschaft) contrast with modern, impersonal societies (Gesellschaft), and the implications of this shift for social relationships and social cohesion.
SOCIOLOGY
William Gamson
American sociologist recognized for his contributions to the study of social movements and collective action. He developed the concept of “collective action frames,” which are the interpretive schemas that individuals and groups use to mobilize participants and garner support for their causes. His influential work includes “The Strategy of Social Protest.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Alfred Binet
French psychologist who, together with Theodore Simon, developed the first practical intelligence test, the Binet-Simon scale. This test laid the groundwork for modern IQ testing and was designed to identify children who needed special education.
PSYCHOLOGY
Carl Jung
Student of Freud, believed that our unconsious mind includes patterns of memories, instincts, and experiments
Disagreed with freud about defense mechanisms
Founded analytic psychology- balancing person’s psyche
a way to understand motivation on consious and unconsious mind
came up with an idea that people are either introverted or extroverted
DREAMS
disagreed with freud about dreams being repressed sexual desires
he believed dreams were symbols that attempt to communicate with the unconsious mind
Activation-synthesis theory: dreams don’t mean anything
Collective unconsious: information shared by all people across cultures
Continual activation theory: processing dreams during REM sleep
Threat simulation theory: defense mechanisms, dreams keep us prepared for dangerous situations, early primates dreamed like this. This is a reflex that early primates have, since they live on trees, so they have fall reflex
PERSONALITY
believed everyone is either introvert and extrovert
4 functional types:
1. thinking (uses reason)
2. feeling (uses emotions)
3. sensations (uses all 5 senses)
4. intuition (uses perception)
Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. His concepts of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and psychological types have had a profound influence on psychology, psychotherapy, and even popular culture. Key works include “The Archetypes and The Collective Unconscious” and “Psychological Types.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Konrad Lorenz
Fixed Action Patterns
Key stimuli that are fixed and automatic
Konrad lorenz- imprinting
Imprinting- boding instinct between young animal and its parents
Austrian zoologist, ethologist, and ornithologist who is often considered one of the founders of ethology, the study of animal behavior. He is best known for his research on imprinting in birds and his contributions to understanding innate behaviors in animals. His notable work includes “On Aggression.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Martin Seligman
American psychologist known for his work on positive psychology, learned helplessness, and well-being. He has promoted the study of human strengths and happiness, and his book “Authentic Happiness” outlines principles for achieving a fulfilling life.
PSYCHOLOGY
Ivan Pavlov
Russian scientist
Studied BP
Classical conditioning
Learning where a stimulus makes you respond a certain wat
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus + unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned response +conditioned stimulus
conditioned response
Russian physiologist best known for his research on classical conditioning. His experiments with dogs demonstrated how neutral stimuli, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, could elicit a conditioned response. This foundational work in behaviorism was documented in “Conditioned Reflexes.”
PSYCHOLOGY
BF Skinner
True behaviousim
Only concerned about behaviour, not mentality
used rats and pigeons to examine how the use of rewards and punishment can influence behaviour (operant conditioning)
American psychologist and behaviorist known for his work on operant conditioning. He developed the concept of reinforcement and invented the Skinner box to study behavior in controlled environments. His influential books include “Walden Two” and “Beyond Freedom and Dignity.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Jean Piaget
Swiss psychologist known for his pioneering work in child development. He proposed a stage theory of cognitive development, outlining how children’s thinking evolves in stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. His influential works include “The Origins of Intelligence in Children.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Erik Erikson
Stage Theory
1. touches on each stage of life
2. explains eary development
3. Analyzes the conflict of eaach agebroadly
Instead of seperating age broadly, Erik Erikson goes very in depth between each small gap of age while also being relative to a lot of people
Focused on physiological aspect
German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development. He proposed eight stages of development, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved. His notable work includes “Childhood and Society.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Albert Bandura
part i cognitive revolution
social- cognitive theiry/social learhing theory
you behave the way you do becuse of the way you watched other people, who would have behaved the same way you do now
Canadian-American psychologist known for his work on social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy. He demonstrated that learning can occur through observation and imitation, as shown in his famous Bobo doll experiment. His key works include “Social Learning Theory” and “Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Elizabeth Loftus
false memory
believed that humsbd cannot remember accuratly
did experiment with the mall geting lost
30% of people did get lost, but others didn’t
American cognitive psychologist and expert on human memory. She is known for her research on the malleability of human memory and the creation of false memories. Her influential work includes “Eyewitness Testimony” and “The Myth of Repressed Memory.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Harry Harlow
Studies based on food
He conducted experiment on primates, monkeys
The monkey didn’t care about the nursing mother, and only went to comfort mother.
American psychologist best known for his research on social isolation, maternal separation, and attachment in rhesus monkeys. His experiments demonstrated the importance of caregiving and companionship in social and cognitive development, highlighting the significance of “contact comfort.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Lev Vygotsky
Soviet psychologist known for his work on the socio-cultural theory of cognitive development. He emphasized the role of social interaction and cultural tools in the development of higher mental functions. His key concepts include the zone of proximal development and scaffolding. His influential work is “Mind in Society.”
CRAP Test
Current: how recent is the information?
Reliable: Opinion? balanced? references?
Authority: credentials, authors past
Purpose: Bias? fact? opinion?
The test is to assess where the information is coming from and how reliable it can be. This is to prevent false information and bias
Identify: The CRAP Test is a method used to evaluate the credibility and reliability of sources. CRAP stands for Currency, Relevance, Authority, and Purpose.
Significance: Applying the CRAP Test helps researchers assess the quality of their sources, ensuring that the information they use is current, relevant to their research question, authored by reputable experts, and has a clear, unbiased purpose. This process enhances the validity and reliability of the research findings.
Closed Questions
First step of research and Inquiry is talking about…
- Open/closed questions
- Which questions to ask that is relevant to the topic
- A good example of an open question starter is “to what extent…”
- Closed questions can be useful, since they are a fact which can help to prove something
Assess
What is the third step of the Research and Inquiry talking about?
Processing information
- recording and organizing information
(consider what’s best to record and organize, notes, graphic organizers, summarize, audio/digital/video recording
Analyze
- Examine things in detail, break down info.
Synthesis
- bringing things together (combining different ideas, combining divine concepts, combining parts or elements)
Assess
- making a judgment on the value of the sources, looking at the quality and factors of the source.
APA Format
- typed
- double-spaced on 8”5x11”
- Must include title page, abstract, main body, and reference page
Plagiarism (cite everything)
Research & Inquiry Process
STEP 1: Formulate questions (exploring)
-Ask about topic, something interesting
-related to anthro., psych, or socio.
STEP 2: What you already know (focus)
STEP 3: formulate a hypothesis
It can be right or wrong
STEP 4:Collecting data
get relevant information
ask questions and observe
STEP 5: Assemble and analyze data
graph/chart
STEP 6: Stop + check
confirm or refute hypothesis
have enough evidence to do so
STEP 7: Present your results
Choose a format to present findings effectively
STEP 8: reflect
Evaluate results and reflect
First step of research and Inquiry is talking about…
- Open/closed questions
- Which questions to ask that is relevant to the topic
- A good example of an open question starter is “to what extent…”
- Closed questions can be useful, since they are a fact which can help to prove something
Second step of research and inquiry is talking about…
Investigating
- An interesting topic
- select information that goes in-depth of topic
What is the third step of the Research and Inquiry talking about?
Processing information
- recording and organizing information
(consider what’s best to record and organize, notes, graphic organizers, summarize, audio/digital/video recording
Analyze
- Examine things in detail, break down info.
Synthesis
- bringing things together (combining different ideas, combining divine concepts, combining parts or elements)
Assess
- making a judgment on the value of the sources, looking at the quality and factors of the source.
What is the fourth step of the Research and Inquiry talking about?
How to present your findings clearly and effectively
Language:
- define your terms, organize everything
- Don’t say “many people”
- Be specific
- say things in less words, make it very readable
APA:
- typed
- double-spaced on 8”5x11”
- Must include title page, abstract, main body, and reference page
Plagiarism (cite everything)
PSYCHOLOGY
Mary Ainsworth
American-Canadian developmental psychologist best known for her work in early emotional attachment. She developed the “Strange Situation” procedure to observe attachment relationships between caregivers and children. Her research identified different attachment styles, such as secure, anxious-ambivalent, and avoidant.
Research question
Identify: A research question is a specific query the researcher aims to answer through their study. It guides the research process and determines the focus and direction of the investigation.
Significance: The formulation of a clear and concise research question is crucial as it helps in narrowing down the scope of the study, determining the methodology, and setting the stage for data collection and analysis. A well-defined research question ensures that the research is focused, relevant, and capable of generating meaningful and actionable insights.
Bipedalism
Identify: Bipedalism is the ability to walk on two legs, a key characteristic of humans and their ancestors.
Significance: Bipedalism is significant in anthropology as it represents a major evolutionary adaptation. It allowed early hominins to free their hands for tool use and carrying objects, enabled efficient long-distance travel, and played a role in the development of complex social behaviors. The study of bipedalism helps anthropologists understand the physical and behavioral evolution of humans.
Charles Darwin
Identify: Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection.
Significance: Darwin’s work, particularly “On the Origin of Species,” revolutionized the understanding of biological diversity and the process of evolution. His ideas laid the foundation for modern evolutionary biology and have had profound implications for anthropology, particularly in understanding human origins, adaptation, and variation.
Socialization
Identify: Socialization is the process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, norms, and social skills necessary to function effectively within a society.
Significance: Socialization is crucial for the continuity of culture and society. It shapes individuals’ identities and behaviors, influences social cohesion, and helps maintain social order. Understanding socialization processes is essential for sociologists studying how societies function and change.
Auguste Comte
Identify: Auguste Comte was a French philosopher and sociologist who is often regarded as the father of sociology.
Significance: Comte coined the term “sociology” and proposed the positivist approach to studying society, which emphasizes empirical observation and scientific methodology. His ideas laid the groundwork for the development of sociology as a distinct academic discipline and influenced subsequent sociological theories and research methods.
Ivan Pavlov
Identify: Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist known for his research on classical conditioning.
Significance: Pavlov’s experiments with dogs demonstrated how a neutral stimulus, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, can elicit a conditioned response. This foundational work in behaviorism has had a lasting impact on psychology, influencing theories of learning, behavior modification, and therapeutic techniques.
Stress
Identify: Stress refers to the body’s response to challenging or demanding situations, which can be physical, mental, or emotional.
Significance: Understanding stress is essential in psychology because it affects mental and physical health, influencing behavior, cognitive functioning, and overall well-being. Research on stress has led to the development of coping strategies, stress management techniques, and therapeutic interventions to improve quality of life.
Social learning theory
Identify: Social Learning Theory, developed by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn behaviors, attitudes, and values through observation, imitation, and modeling.
Significance: This theory highlights the importance of social influences on behavior and has been instrumental in understanding how individuals acquire new behaviors and attitudes. It has applications in education, psychology, criminology, and media studies, providing insights into how behavior can be shaped and modified through social interactions.
Structural functionalism
Identify: Structural functionalism is a sociological theory that views society as a complex system composed of interrelated parts, each serving a specific function to maintain stability and order.
Significance: This theoretical framework helps sociologists understand how different social institutions and practices contribute to the functioning of society. It emphasizes the interdependence of social structures and the importance of social cohesion, guiding research on social stability, order, and change.
Gentrification- Inequalities
Identify: Gentrification often leads to socio-economic inequalities, as the influx of wealthier residents can drive up property values and living costs, displacing lower-income communities.
Significance: Understanding the inequalities resulting from gentrification is crucial for developing policies that balance urban development with social justice. Analyzing these impacts can inform strategies to mitigate displacement, ensure affordable housing, and preserve community diversity.
Cyberbullying- Psychological Motivations
Identify: Psychological motivations behind cyberbullying can include factors such as the desire for power, revenge, social approval, or coping with personal issues.
Significance: Identifying the psychological motivations of cyberbullies is essential for developing effective prevention and intervention strategies. By understanding the underlying causes, psychologists and educators can design programs to address the root issues, promote empathy, and reduce incidences of cyberbullying.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Rites of Passage
Identify: Rites of passage are ceremonial events that mark an individual’s transition from one social status to another.
Significance: These rituals are significant in anthropology as they reflect the values, beliefs, and social structures of a culture. Studying rites of passage helps anthropologists understand how societies manage transitions, social integration, and the continuity of cultural traditions.
Connnections:
Arnold van Gennep
Theory: Van Gennep’s three phases of rites of passage: separation, transition, and incorporation.
Connection: His framework helps anthropologists understand the universal structure of rites of passage across different cultures, emphasizing the stages individuals go through during these rituals.
Victor Turner
Theory: Turner’s concept of “liminality” and “communitas.”
Connection: Turner’s work highlights the transformative nature of rites of passage and the creation of social bonds, offering insights into the psychological and social impacts of these rituals.
Claude Lévi-Strauss
Theory: Structuralism and the analysis of myths and rituals.
Connection: Lévi-Strauss’s structuralist approach helps in understanding the underlying structures of rites of passage and how they reflect the binary oppositions in human thought.
Mary Douglas
Theory: Purity and Danger; the concept of pollution and taboo.
Connection: Douglas’s theories about purity and taboo provide a lens to analyze the symbolic meanings and societal functions of rites of passage, particularly those involving transitions between different social statuses.
Marcel Mauss
Theory: The Gift; the role of reciprocity in social bonds.
Connection: Mauss’s ideas on reciprocity and exchange can be applied to understand the social exchanges and obligations involved in rites of passage, reinforcing social cohesion and community ties.
Emile Durkheim
Theory: The role of collective effervescence in rituals.
Connection: Durkheim’s concept of collective effervescence explains how rites of passage create a sense of unity and shared identity among participants, strengthening social solidarity.
SOCIOLOGY
Social Mobility (Stratification)
Identify: Social mobility refers to the ability of individuals or groups to move within the social hierarchy, which can be upward or downward.
Significance: Social mobility is a key concept in understanding social stratification and inequality. It reflects the opportunities for individuals to improve their socio-economic status and the barriers that may hinder such movement. Analyzing social mobility patterns provides insights into the fairness and openness of a society.
Connections:
Karl Marx
Theory: Class struggle and economic determinism.
Connection: Marx’s focus on the economic base and class conflict provides a framework for analyzing how economic factors and power dynamics affect social mobility.
Max Weber
Theory: Multidimensional approach to social stratification: class, status, and power.
Connection: Weber’s approach highlights the complexity of social mobility, showing how economic, social, and political factors interact to shape individuals’ opportunities.
Pierre Bourdieu
Theory: Cultural capital, social capital, and habitus.
Connection: Bourdieu’s concepts help explain how cultural and social resources influence social mobility and how individuals’ dispositions (habitus) affect their ability to navigate the social hierarchy.
Talcott Parsons
Theory: Structural functionalism and the role of social systems.
Connection: Parsons’s view of society as a system with interrelated parts helps in understanding how different institutions contribute to social mobility and the maintenance of social order.
Robert K. Merton
Theory: Strain theory and the dysfunctions of social structures.
Connection: Merton’s strain theory provides insights into how discrepancies between societal goals and available means can lead to different responses, influencing social mobility and deviance.
W.I. Thomas
Theory: The definition of the situation and the Thomas theorem.
Connection: Thomas’s emphasis on subjective perceptions and their real consequences (Thomas theorem) is relevant for understanding how individuals’ perceptions of their social mobility opportunities affect their actions and outcomes.
PSYCHOLOGY
Long-Term Memory
Identify: Long-term memory is the stage of memory where information is stored for extended periods, ranging from days to a lifetime.
Significance: Understanding long-term memory is crucial for comprehending how experiences and knowledge are retained and retrieved. Research in this area informs educational practices, memory enhancement techniques, and interventions for memory-related disorders, contributing to cognitive and psychological well-being
Connection:
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Theory: Forgetting curve and spacing effect.
Connection: Ebbinghaus’s research provides foundational insights into how information is retained and forgotten over time, influencing strategies for enhancing long-term memory retention.
Endel Tulving
Theory: Differentiation between episodic and semantic memory.
Connection: Tulving’s work helps in understanding the different types of long-term memory and how they are stored and retrieved, offering a detailed view of memory processes.
Elizabeth Loftus
Theory: Malleability of memory and false memories.
Connection: Loftus’s research on how memories can be altered or implanted highlights the complexities of long-term memory accuracy and has implications for fields like legal psychology.
Alan Baddeley
Theory: Working memory model.
Connection: Baddeley’s model of working memory, including components like the central executive and phonological loop, provides insights into how information is processed and transferred to long-term memory.
Atkinson and Shiffrin
Theory: Multi-store model of memory (sensory, short-term, and long-term memory).
Connection: Their model explains how information flows through different stages of memory, highlighting the processes involved in encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term memories.
Eric Kandel
Theory: Molecular mechanisms of memory storage.
Connection: Kandel’s research on the biological basis of memory, particularly the role of synaptic changes in long-term memory formation, bridges psychology and neuroscience, providing a deeper understanding of how memories are formed and maintained at the cellular level.
critical thinking questions
These questions ask you to make a reasoned judgement in light of criteria.
third stage of the Social Science Inquiry Model
Formulate a Hypothesis
critiquing
Judging or evaluating something objectively, recognising strengths and weaknesses.
synthesize
*Judge – to weigh options based on reasons, evidence and criteria
*Evaluate – to judge/determine something’s worth/value;
*Argue – to give reasons for or against an idea using logic and evidence
*Critique – to judge or evaluate something objectively, recognising strengths and weaknesses
*Justify – being able to show how beliefs/actions are in line with reason; to show how they are ethically/morally acceptable
*Prove – to use evidence or reason so strong that its truth is beyond doubt
artifacts
Materials used by a culture.
three principles of natural selection
Variation, heritability, and environmental fitness.
example of biocultural evolution
The earliest use of stone tools corresponds with increased consumption of animal protein. More animal protein in turn changes the hominid diet and potentially its anatomy.
frugivores
Primates with mixed sharp and flat teeth for processing vegetation (but sometimes with particularly large incisors).
example of colonization of the Arctic
Specialized whale-hunting harpoons
network sociology
Viewing society as an interrelated web of connections
structural holes
Gaps in the network structure
code switching
A concept that shows that “being yourself” may be illusory.
the second step of cult indoctrination
Soft Sell
example of Relative Deprivation theory
Women’s suffrage in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
four main schools of psychology
1.Behaviourism
2.Psychoanalysis
3.Humanism
4.Cognitive
three parts of the hindbrain
Cerebellum, Pons, Medulla
IDEAL (Bransford & Stein)
*I — Identify the problem
*D — Define and represent the problem
*E — Explore possible strategies
*A — Action
*L — Look back and evaluate the effects
opponent-process theory
Stimulus –> initial response diminishes –> opposite response grows stronger
8 Factors to Increase Conformity & Obedience
*Emotional distance
*Proximity and legitimacy of authority
*Institutional authority
*Group size
*Unanimity
*Cohesiveness
*Status
*Public response
Alistair Hardy’s Aquatic Ape Theory
The hypothesis that early hominids developed bipedalism by spending a lot of their time in bodies of water.
Heinz Kohut
A psychologist that argued that in order for a person to develop and maintain an experience of a cohesive self, two needs must be met: a need to be “mirrored” (have one’s actions and desires reflected by caregivers) and a need to experience an “other” as idealized.
Michel Foucault
Attempted to show that what most people think of as the permanent truths of human nature and society actually change throughout the course of history.
three types of pre-sociologists
*Theologians: They argued that God (or the gods) had a plan for the world, and sacred scriptures might reveal that plan as God (or, again, the gods) intended it to be manifest. Feudal society in Europe and else- where was run jointly by church and state leaders who believed they were running things the way God wanted them to be run.
*Philosophers: Many philosophers believed that the key to successful social organization lay in an accurate understanding of human nature. If philosophers could figure out, by means of reflection, observation, and discussion, what the essence of human nature was, they could design a perfect society. Plato’s Republic, one of the greatest works of classical philosophy, lays out Plato’s vision of an ideal society.
*Historians: Historians looked to the past to understand the present. Many historians were almost sociological in their comparison of past societies with present societies — in fact, the first sociologists were very interested in historical change — whereas others looked to the past for ideals to be emulated in the present. For example, many historians were convinced that when it came to an effective legal system, the ancient Romans had it figured out and that any successful legal system would have to be based on Roman law.
Rites of passage
Identify: Rites of passage are ceremonial events that mark an individual’s transition from one social status to another.
Significance: These rituals are significant in anthropology as they reflect the values, beliefs, and social structures of a culture. Studying rites of passage helps anthropologists understand how societies manage transitions, social integration, and the continuity of cultural traditions.
Old World Monkeys
Closer to apes than new world monkeys
Native to Africa and Asia
Neanderthals
Germany in 1856
Hunted by humans
Intermixed with early humans
Vocal tracks were higher
Large nasal cavity
Lived in Europe and near east
Simple stone tools
Homo Erectus
Stood up straight
lived at the same time as Australopithecines
Very large brains (bigger appetite)
Small teeth
large body size
Heavy reliance on tools
Wide geographical distribution (Asia, Europe)
Used fire to cook, keep warm (evidence in spain and china, theres stains in caves)
Water craft (used water for making tools and traveling
Chicago school
university of chicago
Ethnology and participant observation
Symbolic interactionalism: the study of interaction
With symbols and gestures
WI Thomas
Sigmund Freud
- First psychologist
- DEFENSE MECHANISMS, Freud believed ego distorted reality to deal with anxiety
- He had people say anything they want, and he didn’t ask questions
That’s free association
SLEEP
- believed our dreams are a collection of images from our daily lives
- dreams have symbolic meaning
1) fulfill wishes
2) unconsious conflicts
3) repression
4) defense mechanisms
5) unconsious learning
6) emotional regulation
7) communication with the unconsious
- Rehearsal theory: we dream to practice fight or flight responses, defense mechanisms
- Latent content: hidden content of a dream
- Manifest content: storyline of events that occur during a dream, per freud’s view of the function of dreams
- Believed that dreams were repressed sexual desires
- Boys: oedipus complex: male child is attracted to mother
- Girls: electra complex: opposite
Acting naturally
- Freud proposed that people are more aggressive and have similar aggressive instincts to identical twins
Higher testosteron in both men and women when committing crimes with anger
Abraham Maslow
Considered one of the founding fathers of humanitist psychology
Self-actualizing and their peak experiences
Full potential
Hierchy of needs: people’s needs have to be met
you don’t get until the top of the pyramid until you are older
pyramid:
self-actualizing
esteem
social
safety
physiological
Younger Dryas
An event that resulted in the destruction of most life on earth, occurring 12,600 years ago.
rational choice theory
Rational choice theory states that individuals use rational calculations to make choices and achieve outcomes that are aligned with their own personal objectives. These results are also associated with maximizing an individual’s self-interest. Using rational choice theory is expected to result in outcomes that provide people with the greatest benefit and satisfaction, given the limited options they have available.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
They said that people perform activities when they are moderately aroused
They didn’t believe that people would do something for the reaction or to not be punished.
Social Learning Theory
-Albert bandusa
part of cognitive revolution
social- cognitive theiry/social learhing theory
- you behave the way you do becuse of the way you watched other people, who would have behaved the same way you do now
Cultural Materialism
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel
Societies go through different phases:
Tribalism, feudalism, capitalism, communism
Infrastructure (base): how systems interact with environment
Structure: governments
Superstructure: ideology
Bank (Infrastructure), money (governments), moving money (superstructure)
Long-Term Memory
Sensory memory: a split-second memory system that stores information coming in through senses
Short-term memory: walking memory when you remember 2-7 things right away
Long-term memory: repeat things until you learn it
Elaboritive-rehearsal- remember any/most things you are interested in, and you don’t remeber things most of the time that you aren’t inetersted in
Episodic-memory: marriage, birthday, graduation, etc.
Semantic memory: information on how to do things like riding a bike
Signal Detection theory
Signal detection theory is a psychological concept that deals with the measurement of the difference between two distinct patterns
Structural materialism
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel
Societies go through different phases:
Tribalism, feudalism, capitalism, communism
Infrastructure (base): how systems interact with environment
Structure: governments
Superstructure: ideology
Bank (Infrastructure), money (governments), moving money (superstructure)
Positivism
Auguste comte
Saw the french revolution
positivism= natural world could be productively used to study the world
1. looking at sciences, scientific investigation, knowledge
2. laws
3. science + laws = change
4. science can be used to build a better world
Three stages of society in progress
1. Theological stage (religion)
2. Metaphysical stage
3. scientific stage
he was seen as too broad
The donald model of Consciousness
