psych exam Flashcards
ANTHROPOLOGY
Mary Leakey
Mary Leakey was a British paleoanthropologist who made significant contributions to the understanding of human evolution. She is best known for her discoveries of fossilized hominid remains, including the famous footprints at Laetoli in Tanzania, which provided evidence of early bipedalism.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Frans de Waal
Frans de Waal is a Dutch primatologist and ethologist known for his work on the behavior and social intelligence of primates, particularly chimpanzees and bonobos. His research has highlighted the similarities between human and primate social behaviors, including empathy, altruism, and conflict resolution.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Alister Hardy
The aquatic ape theory
proven false
Alister Hardy thought that early hominids developed bypedalism by spending a lot of time in the water
He also thought that humans would have their heads above water since we need oxygen, which is how we are using our legs
This is proven false since there is no evidence, and if we were to evolve from sea animals like crocodiles, we would look very different
British marine biologist and a pioneer in the study of marine plankton. He later turned his focus to the study of religious experiences, founding the Religious Experience Research Centre to investigate the nature and significance of spiritual and mystical experiences.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Robin Dunbar
British anthropologist and evolutionary psychologist known for the “Dunbar’s number,” which suggests that humans can maintain stable social relationships with about 150 people. His work explores the evolutionary basis of social behavior and the role of social networks in human evolution.
SOCIOLOGY
C. Wright Mills
“The sociologist imagination”
Reminded society that sociologists exist to change society
pointed out that society was still rife with social problems
American sociologist best known for his critiques of modern industrial societies and his emphasis on the role of power elites. His influential works, such as “The Sociological Imagination,” encourage sociologists to connect personal experiences with larger social structures. Mills argued that the concentration of power in the hands of a small elite shaped the political, economic, and military landscape of modern societies.
ANTHROPOLOGY
AR Radcliffe-Brown
Structural functionalism
AR Raddcliff-Brown thinks that individuals don’t matter as society, because culture is maintained by instututions. Relationships matter more since individuals are replaceable and no one matters as much
British social anthropologist who is considered one of the founders of structural-functionalism, a framework that analyzes society through its interrelated structures and their functions. His work emphasized the importance of social institutions in maintaining societal stability.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Michel Foucault
- languages are important for existence
- literaly analysis appliance
- question everything
- critique of metanarratives
- argue against method and evaluation
- focus on power relations and hegemony
- question everything in the west (knowledge)
French philosopher and social theorist known for his work on the relationship between power, knowledge, and social institutions. His influential works, such as “Discipline and Punish” and “The History of Sexuality,” explore how societal norms and power dynamics shape human behavior and thought.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Bronislaw Malinowski
Individuals together is what keeps society together. Individuals are the most important part of society because they make the choices, not corporations/instututions
Polish-British anthropologist who is often regarded as one of the founders of modern social anthropology. He is known for his fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands and for developing the method of participant observation, emphasizing the importance of understanding cultural practices from the insider’s perspective.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Edward Sapir
American anthropologist-linguist
Studies ways which language and culture are connected
American anthropologist and linguist who made significant contributions to the study of language and its relationship to culture. He is known for his work on Native American languages and for the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which suggests that the structure of a language influences its speakers’ worldview and cognition.
PSYCHOLOGY
Edward Thorndike
law of effect theory
When the cat pulled the string, the door opened
Trial and error
If there’s a reward, the action becomes stamped in the mind
The greater the satisfaction, the greater the stimulus
American psychologist whose work on animal behavior and the learning process led to the development of the theory of connectionism. He is famous for the “Law of Effect,” which states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated. His work laid the groundwork for operant conditioning.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Ferdinand de Saussure
Structural linguistics
thinks that language buried on signs (the signified and the signifier)
Swiss linguist whose ideas laid the foundation for many developments in the study of language and semiotics. He is best known for his theory of the linguistic sign and for establishing structural linguistics, which analyzes language as a system of interrelated elements.
ANTHROPOLOGY
JK Smail
Disagrees with thomas
he said that by 2050, population would be 20B, meaning we would suffer
His theory: The reason why we overpopulate: medicine and agriculture
We need to prioratize overpopulation
American anthropologist who contributed to the understanding of human evolution and anthropology. His work often emphasized the long-term evolutionary processes that have shaped human behavior and culture.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Thomas Malthus
Studies populations
He said populations expand geometrically (double)
Food expands erithmatically (limited)
Populations are limited from a lack of food
English cleric and scholar known for his theories on population growth. His most famous work, “An Essay on the Principle of Population,” posits that populations tend to grow exponentially while resources grow arithmetically, leading to inevitable shortages and societal challenges.
SOCIOLOGY
Ibn Khaldun
Arab philosopher and historian
The kitab al-lbar
precurser of sociology
Argued that older groups will be taken over by younger people (status)
The first figure to talk about society like a sociologist
Not a sociologist, but a philosopher
Asabiyyah
14th-century Arab historiographer and historian, often regarded as one of the fathers of sociology and historiography. His most notable work, “Muqaddimah” (Introduction), presents a comprehensive theory of historical and social processes, including the rise and fall of civilizations, the dynamics of social cohesion, and the role of economics and politics in societal development.
SOCIOLOGY
Émile Durkheim
one of the founders of sociology
“organic metaphor’- society is a human body which has small parts
First sociologist
More positive than Karl Marx
people are governed by social facts
There’s “facts” that are not applicable to be true by some people
He believed as time went on, people change, and changes happen (sociological method)
Argues that crime can be normal only if it’s useful to society
Disgareed with marx about religion being bad, he believed that religion serves a funtion in society and that religion helps maintain solidarity
2 types of solidarity:
organic: people have to adapt to certain situations
mechanical: following rules and living in harmony
conclusion: religion is essential, encourages mutual respect, proves change over time, adapted because society also changed. He appreciated that religion can serv as a powerful form of social glue holding people together.
French sociologist who is often considered one of the founding figures of sociology. He is known for his studies on social integration, the division of labor, and the collective conscience. His major works include “The Division of Labor in Society,” “The Rules of Sociological Method,” and “Suicide,” where he explored the social factors influencing individual behavior.
SOCIOLOGY
Max Weber
theory of rationalization
actions are dependant on efficiency
rationalization helps society function efficently
Example: you get promoted because it helps tge higher-ups, get your “best” work
Buraccucracy is better than revolution
He compared history like a game of clue
Rationalization: people are replaceable
referred to society as an “iron cage”
The idea that you are always trapped in everything
Always controlled
Agreed with Karl Marx about the harm of power, and that it wasn’t just money separating group, but it was gender, age, etc. that is affected by wealth
Thinks that everyone should be equal
Agreed with Emile about religion being essential but concluded that religion didn’t always lead to love
religious beliefs/values led to social changes
not all outcomes are possible in society, there are “tracks”
SOCIOLOGY
Auguste comte
Positivism
Saw the french revolution
positivism= natural world could be productively used to study the world
1. looking at sciences, scientific investigation, knowledge
2. laws
3. science + laws = change
4. science can be used to build a better world
Three stages of society in progress
1. Theological stage (religion)
2. Metaphysical stage
3. scientific stage
he was seen as too broad
French philosopher and sociologist who is credited with founding the discipline of sociology and the doctrine of positivism. He proposed that societies develop through three stages: theological, metaphysical, and positive. Comte’s work, “Course in Positive Philosophy,” outlines his vision of sociology as a science dedicated to understanding and improving society through empirical observation and logical analysis.
SOCIOLOGY
Karl Marx
First of the three thinkers
commented on capitalism, economic system
WI Freidrich Engels
Conflict theory:
competition of power
Inbalance of wealth
powerful instutions harm the poor
conflict of burgious and palitarian
He believed everything was a competition of power/money
He predicted that the lower class world
Conflict +revolution = societal evolution to Marx
Believed religion was bad because he understood that society was fundemental for gaining power
German philosopher, economist, and political theorist best known for his theories about capitalism and communism. His works, including “The Communist Manifesto” and “Das Kapital,” critique the effects of capitalism on labor, productivity, and economic development and advocate for a classless society.
SOCIOLOGY
Talcott Parsons
Espoured functionalism: the same model of something exists for a reason since it works
He thought Reisman’s argument was a good thing
controvertial (for example, murder or racism)
American sociologist known for his development of the theory of social action and structural functionalism. His work aimed to create a unified theory for understanding how societies function and maintain stability. Key contributions include his books “The Structure of Social Action” and “The Social System,” where he introduced concepts like the AGIL framework (Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration, Latency) to analyze social systems.
SOCIOLOGY
George Simmel
German sociologist and philosopher who made significant contributions to the development of sociology as a distinct academic discipline. He is known for his work on social forms and interactions, including the study of dyads and triads, social distance, and the philosophy of money. His influential works include “The Philosophy of Money” and “On Individuality and Social Forms.”
SOCIOLOGY
George Herbert Mead
Believed that symbols are key to understanding society
Symbols define our relationships
Without symbols, we wouldn’t know how to interact with each other
American philosopher and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of social psychology and the symbolic interactionist school of thought. His work focused on the development of the self and social identity through interaction with others. His seminal work, “Mind, Self, and Society,” explores how individuals develop self-awareness and social roles through communication and social interaction.
SOCIOLOGY
Harold Garfinkel
The breaching experiments
intentional breaking of social norms and analyzed people’s reactions to the breach
American sociologist and the founder of ethnomethodology, a methodological approach that studies the ways in which people produce and maintain social order in everyday life. His book “Studies in Ethnomethodology” introduced key concepts and methods for understanding the implicit social norms and practices that underlie human interactions.
SOCIOLOGY
Pierre Bourdieau
Specialized in knowledge
Human capital and cultural capital
French sociologist and anthropologist known for his theory of practice and concepts such as habitus, capital, and field. His work examines how power and social inequality are maintained through cultural and symbolic means. Key works include “Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste” and “Outline of a Theory of Practice.”
SOCIOLOGY
WI Thomas
Self fulfilling prphecy
Reprecussions of self systemic discrimination, (if you see yourslef descriminated you will be descriminated yourself)
American sociologist and one of the pioneers of the Chicago School of sociology. He is best known for the Thomas theorem, which states, “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.” This idea highlights the subjective nature of social reality and its impact on human behavior. His notable work includes “The Polish Peasant in Europe and America,” co-authored with Florian Znaniecki.
SOCIOLOGY
Douglas McAdam
resource mobalization theory
social movements from when people share grievance and are able to mobalize resources and take action
American sociologist known for his work on social movements, political sociology, and the civil rights movement. His influential book “Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970” introduced the political process model, which emphasizes the role of political opportunities, mobilizing structures, and framing processes in the development of social movements.
SOCIOLOGY
Ferdinand Tönnies
Born in germany
two ideas
geimenschaft and gesselschaft
Schaft is unity
geimen is community, the idea that people live together and also have similar interests. gessel means society, where people live together but they may not share interests. Over time, he thinks that society will be gesselschaft because there are too many people, so it would be hard to be close with everyone
German sociologist and philosopher best known for his distinction between two types of social groups: Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (society). In his book “Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft,” he explores how traditional, close-knit communities (Gemeinschaft) contrast with modern, impersonal societies (Gesellschaft), and the implications of this shift for social relationships and social cohesion.
SOCIOLOGY
William Gamson
American sociologist recognized for his contributions to the study of social movements and collective action. He developed the concept of “collective action frames,” which are the interpretive schemas that individuals and groups use to mobilize participants and garner support for their causes. His influential work includes “The Strategy of Social Protest.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Alfred Binet
French psychologist who, together with Theodore Simon, developed the first practical intelligence test, the Binet-Simon scale. This test laid the groundwork for modern IQ testing and was designed to identify children who needed special education.
PSYCHOLOGY
Carl Jung
Student of Freud, believed that our unconsious mind includes patterns of memories, instincts, and experiments
Disagreed with freud about defense mechanisms
Founded analytic psychology- balancing person’s psyche
a way to understand motivation on consious and unconsious mind
came up with an idea that people are either introverted or extroverted
DREAMS
disagreed with freud about dreams being repressed sexual desires
he believed dreams were symbols that attempt to communicate with the unconsious mind
Activation-synthesis theory: dreams don’t mean anything
Collective unconsious: information shared by all people across cultures
Continual activation theory: processing dreams during REM sleep
Threat simulation theory: defense mechanisms, dreams keep us prepared for dangerous situations, early primates dreamed like this. This is a reflex that early primates have, since they live on trees, so they have fall reflex
PERSONALITY
believed everyone is either introvert and extrovert
4 functional types:
1. thinking (uses reason)
2. feeling (uses emotions)
3. sensations (uses all 5 senses)
4. intuition (uses perception)
Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. His concepts of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and psychological types have had a profound influence on psychology, psychotherapy, and even popular culture. Key works include “The Archetypes and The Collective Unconscious” and “Psychological Types.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Konrad Lorenz
Fixed Action Patterns
Key stimuli that are fixed and automatic
Konrad lorenz- imprinting
Imprinting- boding instinct between young animal and its parents
Austrian zoologist, ethologist, and ornithologist who is often considered one of the founders of ethology, the study of animal behavior. He is best known for his research on imprinting in birds and his contributions to understanding innate behaviors in animals. His notable work includes “On Aggression.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Martin Seligman
American psychologist known for his work on positive psychology, learned helplessness, and well-being. He has promoted the study of human strengths and happiness, and his book “Authentic Happiness” outlines principles for achieving a fulfilling life.
PSYCHOLOGY
Ivan Pavlov
Russian scientist
Studied BP
Classical conditioning
Learning where a stimulus makes you respond a certain wat
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus + unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned response +conditioned stimulus
conditioned response
Russian physiologist best known for his research on classical conditioning. His experiments with dogs demonstrated how neutral stimuli, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, could elicit a conditioned response. This foundational work in behaviorism was documented in “Conditioned Reflexes.”
PSYCHOLOGY
BF Skinner
True behaviousim
Only concerned about behaviour, not mentality
used rats and pigeons to examine how the use of rewards and punishment can influence behaviour (operant conditioning)
American psychologist and behaviorist known for his work on operant conditioning. He developed the concept of reinforcement and invented the Skinner box to study behavior in controlled environments. His influential books include “Walden Two” and “Beyond Freedom and Dignity.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Jean Piaget
Swiss psychologist known for his pioneering work in child development. He proposed a stage theory of cognitive development, outlining how children’s thinking evolves in stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. His influential works include “The Origins of Intelligence in Children.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Erik Erikson
Stage Theory
1. touches on each stage of life
2. explains eary development
3. Analyzes the conflict of eaach agebroadly
Instead of seperating age broadly, Erik Erikson goes very in depth between each small gap of age while also being relative to a lot of people
Focused on physiological aspect
German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development. He proposed eight stages of development, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved. His notable work includes “Childhood and Society.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Albert Bandura
part i cognitive revolution
social- cognitive theiry/social learhing theory
you behave the way you do becuse of the way you watched other people, who would have behaved the same way you do now
Canadian-American psychologist known for his work on social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy. He demonstrated that learning can occur through observation and imitation, as shown in his famous Bobo doll experiment. His key works include “Social Learning Theory” and “Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Elizabeth Loftus
false memory
believed that humsbd cannot remember accuratly
did experiment with the mall geting lost
30% of people did get lost, but others didn’t
American cognitive psychologist and expert on human memory. She is known for her research on the malleability of human memory and the creation of false memories. Her influential work includes “Eyewitness Testimony” and “The Myth of Repressed Memory.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Harry Harlow
Studies based on food
He conducted experiment on primates, monkeys
The monkey didn’t care about the nursing mother, and only went to comfort mother.
American psychologist best known for his research on social isolation, maternal separation, and attachment in rhesus monkeys. His experiments demonstrated the importance of caregiving and companionship in social and cognitive development, highlighting the significance of “contact comfort.”
PSYCHOLOGY
Lev Vygotsky
Soviet psychologist known for his work on the socio-cultural theory of cognitive development. He emphasized the role of social interaction and cultural tools in the development of higher mental functions. His key concepts include the zone of proximal development and scaffolding. His influential work is “Mind in Society.”
