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Biology > Mr Allsop- Neuronal communication > Flashcards

Mr Allsop- Neuronal communication Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is homeostasis

A

maintenance of relatively constant conditions inside the body

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2
Q

what are some internal environmental factors

A

blood PH
blood Temp
water potential
blood glucose- too high- organ failure
too low- unconsciousness

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3
Q

what are some external environmental factors

A

temperature, light, humidity, soil PH, loud noises , water

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4
Q

what are 2 ways animals respond to changes

A

electrical responses ( via neurons)
chemical responses (via hormones)

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5
Q

how are hormones transported in the blood

A

blood as they are transported long distance

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6
Q

what do glycoproteins do

A

cell adhesion, receptors for signalling

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7
Q

what does a sensory neurone do

A

transmits electrical impulse from a receptor cell to a relay neurone, motor neurone or brain.

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8
Q

what are dendrites

A

connect to receptor cells to send impulse to dendron

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9
Q

what are the features of a sensory neurone

A

dendrites, dendron, cell body, myelin sheath, axon, axon terminals, node of Ranvier

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10
Q

what does a dendron do

A

carries impulse towards cell body

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11
Q

what does myelin sheath do

A

insulates axon/dendron so impulse bounces to the nodes of Ranvier increasing neurotransmission speed.

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12
Q

what does the axon do

A

carries the impulse away from cell body

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13
Q

what does a motor neurone do and how does it differ from a sensory neurone

A

transmits impulses from relay or sensory neurone to an effector such as muscle or gland
no dendron only dendrites, cell body isn’t central it is on left.

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14
Q

what do axon terminals do

A

connect to dendrites of other neurones

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15
Q

what does relay neurone do and how is the structure different

A

transmits impulse between neurones by connecting sensory and motor neurone
has multiple axons and dendrites which look the same
circular

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16
Q

what are Schwann cells

A

type of glia cell which supports the roll of neurones
produces layers if plasma membrane around axon called myelin sheath

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17
Q

what is saltory conduction

A

signals jump form node to node to increase neurotransmission speed

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18
Q

what is sclerosis

A

myelin sheath gets destroyed which reduces neurotransmission speed so axon potential takes a long time to travel through

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19
Q

what is the function of Pacinian corpuscle (skin) and where is it located

A

sensory receptor for mechanoreceptors ( stimulus of pressure/movement deep in skin of fingers and soles of feet

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20
Q

what is a transducer

A

converts a stimulus to an action potential which creates a response

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21
Q

explain to process from stimulus to response

A

pressure is applied to sesnory receptor which opens stretch mediated sodium channels increasing the volatge inside receptor known as depolarisation. this initiates a genrator potential which is turned into a action potential.

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22
Q

what is resting membrane potential

A

-70MV

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23
Q

exaplain nervous transmission

A

sodium-potassium pump, pumps in 2 potassium for every 3 sodium pumped out.
the increase in positive charge outside causes electrochemical gradient which makes sodium have a tendency to re-enter but cannot as sodium channels are gated. however potassium channels are open causing them to diffuse out. this then takes the resting membrane potential back to -70mv

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24
Q

what is meant by propagation of an action potential

A

axon potential starts at one end of the neurone and is propagated (passed on) to other end by the depolarisation at one region acting as stimulus for depolarisation of next region

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25
Q

explain how the propagation of action potential

A

-70mv is resting potential
some sodium gated channels open causing depolarisation and increase in positive charge in membrane.
at peak of positive charge is when the action potential is fired
at 40MV voltage gated channels close, potassium channels open
causing inside of membrane to loose lots of potassium and sodium (hyperpolarisation) which prevents the constant firing of axon potentials
potassium gates close causing resting membrane to return to -70mv

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26
Q

what is the refractory period

A

axon potential fired but short period of time when axon cannot be excited again; the voltage- gated sodium ion channels remain closed, to ensure it is propagated uni-directional and doesn’t constantly fire

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27
Q

what is myelination

A

myelination is the process of specialised cells called Schwann cells produce layers of membrane around axon forming myelin sheath. Between them is a small gap called node of Ranvier which allows for electrical impulse to jump to each gap, increasing electrochemical impulse speed.

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28
Q

what are synapses

A

junction between 2 neurones (or neurone and effector)

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29
Q

what is the function of synapses

A

ensure impulse travels uni-directional
impulses from one neurone to many others
allows impulses from many neurones to be transmitted to one

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30
Q

what are the key features of a synapse

A

pre-synaptic neurone
post-synaptic neurone
synaptic cleft
synaptic knob
synaptic vesicle
receptors

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31
Q

explain the process of synaptic transmission with neurotransmitter acetylcholine alevel standard

A

action potential travels along the synaptic knob, this causes the voltage gated calcium channels to open creating influx of calcium which triggers the vesicles to fuse to pre-synaptic neurone and release acetylcholine across synaptic cleft to diffuse across and bind to receptors on post-synaptic neurone which triggers sodium gated channels to open, creating influx of sodium which depolarises post-synaptic neurone causing impulse to travel.

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32
Q

what is the function of acetylcholinesterase

A

breaks down acetylcholine bound to receptors into chlorine and acetyl which diffuses back into pre-synaptic neurone where the ATP from mitochondria repackages back together

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33
Q

what are excitatory vs inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

excitatory- neurotransmitters that result in depolarisation of post-synaptic neurones so generate action potential
inhibitory- neurotransmitters that result in hyperpolarisation which stops action potential from being fired e.g GABA

34
Q

what is temporal summation

A

one pre-synaptic neurone constantly fires neurotransmitters to meet threshold

35
Q
A
36
Q

what is spatial summation

A

multiple pre-synaptic neurones give their neurotransmitters to meet threshold to generate action potential

37
Q

what features are part of the central nervous system

A

brain, spinal chord, relay neurone

38
Q

what are the features of peripheral nervous system

A

sensory, motor and Pacinian corpuscle

39
Q

what are the two parts of the peripheral nervous system

A

somatic and autonomic

40
Q

what is a somatic response and examples

A

conscious- movement, speech

41
Q

what is the autonomic response and examples

A

subconscious- frees up higher order thinking
breathing, heart rate, salivating, cough, sickness, excretion

42
Q

what are the two pathways an autonomic response can take and neurotransmitters responsible

A

sympathetic- ‘fight or flight’
noradrenaline
(increases heart rate)

parasympathetic- relaxing responses but can increase/decrease some factors
acetylcholine
(decreases heart rate)

43
Q

what is the cerebrum responsible for

A

controls voluntary actions- split into two hemispheres that communicate impulses from opposite side via corpus callosum

44
Q

what is frontal lobe responsible for

A

problem solving, decision making, personality, memory, language

45
Q

what is the parietal lobe responsible for

A

integrating sensory info

46
Q

what is the temporal lobe responsible for

A

listening, speech, emotion

47
Q

what is the occipital lobe responsible for

A

visual processing

48
Q

what is the cerebellum responsible for

A

muscular movement, posture and balance
doesn’t initiate movement- coordinates it

49
Q

what is the medulla oblongata responsible for

A

controls reflex activities such as heart rate, breathing rate, swallowing, coughing

50
Q

what are the two endocrine glands and what are they responsible for

A

hypothalamus- main control centre of hormones + homeostasis
controls pituitary gland
pituitary gland= anterior(front)- secretes hormone
posterior- stores hormones

51
Q

what is a reflex

A

involuntary responses to a sensory stimuluz

52
Q

what is the purpose of reflexes

A

avoid body being harmed
leaves brain to deal with more complex responses - prevents overloading brain
doesn’t have to be learn’- immediate protection from birth
very fast
everyday reflexes- keeps us alive

53
Q

explain the knee jerk

A

patella is hit, patella tendon stretches quadriceps which is detected by muscle spindles which stimulates sensory neurones which travel to spinal chord to synapse with motor neurones
antagonist- when quadriceps contract, relay neurone causes hamstring to relax

54
Q

explain the reflex blinking

A

stimulus in cornea triggers impulse- impulse sent along sensory neurone (trigeminal nerve) to relay neurone in lower brain stem, then along motor neurone to close eyes ( cranial nerve)

55
Q

explain voluntary muscles

A

skeletal- attach to tendons
make up bulk of muscle tissue
regulary arranged to contract in 1 direction

56
Q

what are the two involuntary muscles

A

smooth muscle and cardiac muscles

57
Q

explain structure and function of smooth muscle

A

make walls of hallow organs
peristalsis - contract to move food down oesophagus for example
no regular arrangement so can contract in different directions- non-striated - fibres are spindle shaped- multinucleated

58
Q

explain structure and function of cardiac muscles

A

myogenic- contract without need for nervous stimulation
are striated but are fainter than skeletal muscles - branched and uninucleated

59
Q

what is meant by the rope analogy of muscles

A

rope- muscle
string- muscle fibre
threads- myofibrils

60
Q

what is the prefix for muscle

A

sarco

61
Q

what is the sarcolemma

A

specialised membrane for contraction of muscle fibres

62
Q

what is the sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

generates calcium ions

63
Q

what are T tubules

A

extends inwards as extension of sarcolemma- extends into middle of cell to allow all of calcium ions to depolarise simultaneously

64
Q

what are myofibrils

A

cylindrical organelle made of protein for specialised contraction

65
Q

what are the two types of protein present in myofibrils

A

actin- thinner - two strands of fibre rapped round each other
myosin- thicker filament- long rod shaped fibres with bulbous heads

66
Q

explain what is a sarcomere

A

functional region of myofibril by contracting when muscle contracts

67
Q

what is meant by the Z line of sarcomere

A

end of structure that moves closer together when muscle contracts

68
Q

what is the light band of sarcomere

A

only actin is present in this region as it is a thinner protein ( next to z line )

69
Q

what is the dark band of sarcomere

A

area where both myosin and actin are present (middle section)

70
Q

what is the H zone

A

area where only myosin is present - reduces in size when sarcomere contracts-less darker zone of dark band

71
Q

what is meant by fast twitch fibres

A

quick burst of energy that runs out quickly for example sprinter- increased size of fast twitch fibres

72
Q

what is meant by slow twitch fibres

A

remains small but contracts slowly over long period of time for example marathon runner

73
Q

how can slow twitch/fast twitch fibres be seen as genetically based or environmentally based

A

training muscles for example at the gym can increase size of fast twitch fibres
genetics- most people are born with around 50/50 fast and slow twitch fibres but some athletes may be born with more of one than the other

74
Q

what is creatine phosphate and how does it work in relation to fast twitch fibre

A

used to turn ADP-ATP to prolong energy - anaerobic as when no oxygen ATP still needs to be produced

75
Q

what is mean by the sliding filament model

A

in order to contract the sarcomere the actin and myosin must slide over each other

76
Q

what is tropomyosin

A

covers binding site at resting state (coil like)

77
Q

what is the tropin

A

keeps tropomyosin in place

78
Q

what the structure of myosin

A

bulbous head- ADP attached

79
Q

explain the sliding filament model

A

1-action potential depolarises sarcoplasmic reticulum which causes ca+ ions to open binding them to tropism
2- this causes conformational change which moves tropomyosin out of the way of binding site on actin
3- the bulbous head of myosin binds to actin creating another conformational change causing head to flex pulling actin along and releasing ADP
4- ATP binds to myosin removing head from binding site
5- ca2+ binds to bulbous head activating ATPase to hydrolyse ADP+PI- this energy returns it to unflexed shape

80
Q
A

Biology (15 decks)

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