Molecular hallmarks of ageing 2

Question 1

how is the mitochondrial intervention helpful?

Answer 1

important for mitochondrial regulation because it uses dynamic system so it separates and mitochondria merges together in process -called fusion. This can provide more ATP.

Question 2

what is mitochondrial intervention?

Answer 2

known to improve outcome of ageing and ageing associated diseases

Question 3

what happens to the mitochondria during ageing?

Answer 3

becomes inefficient in producing ATP so it doesn’t produce as much ATP as the cell requires so it will have to work harder.

Question 4

during ageing the mitochondria has to work harder so ROS is produced , what will this cause?

Answer 4

causing damage to the cells and the antioxidant system increases so it works hard to get rid of the ROS that is generated.

Question 5

in older age what happens to function of mitochondria?

Answer 5

function of mitochondria declines so it can’t produce enough ATP to provide energy for cellular function and oxidative stress as mitochondria becomes leaky and ROS increases- antioxidant system can’t cope with amount of ROS and the DNA repair machinery is not that efficient.

Question 6

Cellular system

Answer 6

mitophagy-removes mitochondria that is damaged

Question 7

why does mitochondrial dysfunction happen?

Answer 7

Dynamic process of mitochondria-need more energy or less , depending on the need of the cell the cell cannot switch between fusions and fission separating the cell or combining to provide more energy

Question 8

Mitochondrial dynamic

Answer 8

produces ATP and Ros and collects damage to the DNA -in the fission process the mitochondria cuts into 2 the damaged part goes through mitophagy and the healthy part does the process again

Question 9

Fusion

Answer 9

combine 2 ATP mitochondria or multiple mitochondria-more energy for the cell

Question 10

what’s happens in fusion during ageing?

Answer 10

cannot get rid of damaged part and there is less energy.

Question 11

name 3 deregulated nutrient sensing pathways

Answer 11

Biochemical pathways-sense the nutrition status of a cell.
Insulin growth factor 1(IGF1):needs to be regulated -change during different stages of life pathway(IIS)
Several cells produce IGF1 -liver is the most common source-stimulates bone and muscle growth

Question 12

how is AKT activated

Answer 12

Insulin growth factor ligands bind to its receptor then stimulate a cascade of events which activates secondary messengers

Question 13

AKT function

Answer 13

protein synthesis, cell survival and cell proliferation needed for growth and development.

Question 14

what are 4 things ATK does?

Answer 14

-induces inflammation signals and senescence phenotype
-inhibits apoptosis
-inhibits foxo-transcription of genes that are involved in longevity and inhibits stress and resistance and autophagy

Question 15

Deregulated nutrient sensing pathways

Answer 15

-mTOR pathway
-SIRTs pathway: involved in metabolic pathways such as fat production, insulin secretion, glucose synthesis, mitochondrial biosynthesis, ATP production and autophagy. Certain things such as stress and viral infection can activate this. Once these compounds happen secondary messengers get activated and activates AMPK.

Question 16

AMPK function

Answer 16

stimulates autophagy -promotes antioxidant system and inhibit ageing

Question 17

what does the insulin, IGF1 pathway?

Answer 17

1.Autophagy
2.protein synthesis
3.nutrient sensing, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress

Question 18

Foods that are good for ageing

Answer 18

raspberries -contains resveratrol

Question 19

Cellular senescence

Answer 19

process that causes premature or permanent proliferation(increases cell numbers by replicating in cell division) on cells. It is aged or older cell

Question 20

what happens when cells keep replicating in cell division?

Answer 20

hits an intercellular stop sign where telomeres are shortened and damage is caused by ROS then replication is blocked as it communicates it that is has had enough damage and it shouldn’t replicate anymore

Question 21

Senescent cell

Answer 21

cell accumulated to much damage

Question 22

Hayflick limit/ Hayflick phenomenon

Answer 22

number of times a cell replicates before it goes into senescence. Once it hits the limit it will stop replicating

Question 23

in cell division how does cancer deal with the signal given?

Answer 23

cancer cells bypass this signal and keep replicating and growing which leads to tumours

Question 24

Senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP)

Answer 24

mixture of proinflammatory signals and matrix metalloproteinases(MMPs)

Question 25

what enzyme does senescent cells produce?

Answer 25

SA-B(beta galatctose) gal or SABG

Question 26

function of SA-B(beta galatctose) gal or SABG

Answer 26

converts galactosides into monosaccharide only in senescent cells

Question 27

proinflammatory signal

Answer 27

causes inflammation leads to inflammaging, MMps are proteases that can degrade all kinds of extracellular matrix

Question 28

what is another marker for senescent cells

Answer 28

chi 67- marker of proliferation

Question 29

primary purpose of antagonistic hallmark or senescence

Answer 29

Due to ageing there is change in senescence. One way this is through is there are a lot of senescent cells that the body cannot get rid of easily so then there will be a build-up of senescent cells and new cells cannot be grown.

Question 30

what happens after the primary purpose of antagonistic hallmark?

Answer 30

hits hayflick limit its declared senescence so these senescent cells are recognised because they have a specific phenotype and produce SASPs which have inflammatory signals which leads to inflammation.

Question 31

what happens after inflammatory signals are sent and it causes inflammation in senescent cells

Answer 31

due to ageing to deal with the amount of senescence that has been accumulated or the immune cells or the immune cells are not efficient to remove the senescent cells the body ends up with damaged or senescent cells

Question 32

what is the relation between senescent cells and cancer?

Answer 32

cancer cells bypass this replication break so the aged and senescent cells continue to replicate and grow and the unlimited growth causes cancer.

Question 33

Stem cell exhaustion

Answer 33

reason for this is senescence and the repair machinery not working

Question 34

Haemopoietic cell

Answer 34

blood regenerator cell so it can renew itself and can function in tissue repair and regeneration

Question 35

why does ageing cause a inability of stem cells

Answer 35

causes inability of stem cells to replenish a tissue or organism so it can’t regenerate itself

Question 36

what happens when there is a hay flick limit on stem cells?

Answer 36

there is damage accumulated where stem cells can be senescent so they are aged and cannot reproduce

Question 37

altered intercellular communication

Answer 37

how cell talks to the other cell

Question 38

3 ways cells communicate

Answer 38

1.peripheral signalling
2.endocrine signalling
3.synaptic signalling

Question 39

Peripheral signalling

Answer 39

transmitted to adjacent cells which are in close together so once cell releases hormone which the next cell has the receptor for the certain ligand and then change the function

Question 40

Endocrine signalling

Answer 40

certain hormone is released into blood e.g insulin is released from pancreatic beta cells intro blood and function on other parts of body like liver and recpetors on this receive the hormone and do the function.

Question 41

Synaptic signalling

Answer 41

neurotransmitters are transported by neuronal axons and target cells bind to receptor and do action potential

Question 42

how is the communication between cells effected during ageing?

Answer 42

During ageing the communication is not there as messaging is not received and there it too much information being received

Question 43

Inflammaging

Answer 43

chronic low grade systematic inflammation causes age related disease

Question 44

what is senescent cell(pro inflammatory signals)

Answer 44

cytokines

Question 45

3 ways inflammaging can be caused

Answer 45

1.accumalation of proinflammatory tissue damage
2.failure of dysfunctional immune system to effectively clear pathogens
3. senescent cells produce proinflammatory signals