Mistakes made during mock quizzes Flashcards
The pathway of O2 from alveoli across the respiratory membrane to capillaries is
Simple squamous > basement membrane of alveolus > interstitial space > basement membrane of capillary > simple squamous
The vestibule just inside each naris is lined by what epithelium
Stratified squamous
What is lined by a pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Nasopharynx
In an asthma attack, what muscles in what contract
Smooth muscles in terminal bronchioles contract
If the elastic fibers were removed from around the alveolar sacs, the lungs in normal breathing would lose most of their ability to?
recoil so exhalation would be impeded
Carbon dioxide has a solubility coefficient 24 times higher than oxygen. This means that carbon dioxide…
Is 24x more soluble in water than oxygen
Emphysema causes destruction of elastic lung tissue. As a result of emphysema, elastic recoil of the lungs would ___ and compliance of the lungs would ___
decrease, increase
Why is the partial pressure of water PH2O of 47mmHg in both alveolar and expired air
The air in the respiratory tract is humidified to 100% saturation of water
Blood entering lungs has a PO2 of 40 mmHg while blood immediately leaving the lung capillaries has a PO2 of ____ mmHg because it has reached equilibrium with the PO2 in the _____
104, alveoli
Arterial blood entering the tissues has a PO2 = 95 mmHg and a PCO2 = 40 mmHg. Venous blood leaving the tissues has a PO2 = ____ mmHg and PCO2 = ____ mmHg
40, 45
Why do chemoreceptors not react for people with thalassemia or sickle cell anemia to provide adequate o2 to tissues
Chemoreceptors only monitor dissolved o2 in the blood and that remains unchanged for those with anemia
What is the effect called when hemoglobin that has released o2 binds more readily to co2 than hemoglobin that is highly saturated with o2
Haldane effect
When you are exercising, your rate of breathing because…
PCO2 levels increase & pH levels in blood and cerebrospinal fluid drops
Lung recoil occurs because of elastic fibers in alveolar walls and …
surface tension of fluid that lines the alveoli
What condition causes increased compliance of lungs
emphysema
What is the total WBC count
4 - 11 x 10^3
What is the WBC composition from most to least
Neutrophil > lymphocyte > monocyte > eosinophils > basophils
What is the RBC count
males 4.5 - 6.5 x 10^6 mL
female: 3.9 - 5.6 x10^6 mL
What is factor XII known as
Hageman factor
Where can heparin be found in WBC
basophils and mast cells
Can anti-thrombin III be found
plasma proteins
What do granulocyte precursors lead to
Formation of granulocytes such as basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils
What does myeloid stem cells not form
Lymphocytes
What are the WBC with 3 nuclei
Neutrophils
What are the WBC with 2 nuclei
basophils and eosinophils
What separates superior and inferior mediastinum
Line across sternal angle and between T4, T5
What is epicardium known as
visceral layer of serous pericardium
What is the cardiac tamponade
when the space around heart is filled with fluids and places pressure onto the heart
where does the apex of the heart lie
5th intercostal space at midclavicular line
What played a role in fetal circulation
fossa ovalis
What do capillaries only have
endothelium (tunica intima)
What forms the respiratory mucosa
smooth muscle, lamina propria, respiratory epithelium
What causes bronchodilation
sympathetic innervation
what causes bronchoconstriction
parasympathetic innervation
Are the nucleus of pseudostratified columnar epithelium in the same position for all cells
No. At different levels
What does not cast an impression on mediastinal surface of lungs
pulmonary trunk
How to differentiate between external and internal intercostal
Arrow upwards is external
Arrow downwards is internal
What is found in the innermost layer of intercostal muscles
transversus thoracis, innermost intercostal, subcostalis (all most active in forced expiration)
what forms the extracellular fluid
interstitial fluid + plasma
where can av node be found
near opening of coronary sinus
SA node activity and atrial activation generates _____ action potentials per minute at rest
60 - 100
When can 3rd heart beat be heard
Passive filling sound of ventricles cannot be heard normally except in hyperdynamic circulation or pathologically in cardiac failure
When can 4th heart beat be heard
At atrial systole, ventricular hypertrophy, difficulty in filling up ventricles during atrial contraction
when can cardiac murmurs be heard
Produced by turbulent flow of blood across incompetent (regurgitating) or stenotic (narrowed) valves
What does large vein have the most amount of
collagen fiber
what does large arteries have the most amount of
elastic fiber
what do capillaries have
endothelium (tunica intima)
What is the coronary sulcus
groove outside heart that separates atria and ventricles
does change in HR not affect
ESV
what does change in HR affet
CO, filling time, SV
What is fibrous pericardium epithelium like
stratified squamous
does left ventricle change with age
yes
what ion gates open when depolarization occurs
Na+ gates open
when does early repolarization occur
K+ open, Na+ close
when does final repolarization occur
K+ open
what is the CO like when someone has pulmonary edema
left ventricle CO is lower than right
what does increased input from baroceptor to Cardiac control center cause
decreased sympathetic and increased parasympathetic
What does increased extracellular Ca2+ cause
increased contraction and decreased HR
what are cardiac muscle ion channels like during plateau phase
Ca2+ open, K+ open, Na+ closed
What causes prepotential in pacemaker cells
ectopic action potentials in atria
What do parasympathetic nerve fibers extend to
terminal ganglia with wall of the heart
Excess K+ ions in cardiac tissue cause HR and SV to _____ and decreased extracellular K+ ions result in _____ HR
increase, decrease
What are the arteries in order of frequency of occlusion (From most frequent)
anterior interventricular branch, right coronary artery, circumflex branch, left coronary artery, posterior interventricular branch
Does polycythemia cause decreased TPR
False. Polycythemia causes increased TPR
Can Rh- donate to Rh+?
Yes
Do only factors X, IX, VII, II need vitamins
Yes
Are arterioles considered pressure reservoirs?
no. only arteries
What does increased input from baroreceptor
decreased sympathetic and increased parasympathetic
What does a cut vagus nerve cause
increased HR because vagus nerve is parasympathetic
Sympathetic stimulation activates intrinsic and extrinsic control of SV?
yes
What identified inferior wall using ECG
Lead II, III, aVF
What is the difference between tachypnoea and hyperventilation
tachypnoea causes rapid breathing and shallow breaths
hyperventilation causes rapid breathing but deep breaths
What is FRC
ERV + RV
What is inspiratory capacity
IRV + TV
What is vital capacity
IRV + ERV + TV
What is total lung capacity
TLC = VC + RV
= (IRV + TV + ERV) + RV
= IC + FRC
= FRC + TV + IRV
How does apex of the lung compensate for high ventilation and low perfusion
local airway dilation
Are PDGF, VEGF, ADP, Ca2+, thromboxane A2 from degranulated enzymes?
no
Do sympathetic fibers supply arteriolar smooth muscle everywhere?
No. Brain does not have as it needs constant cardiac output
What does increased sympathetic innervation do to veins
generalized vasoconstriction
What does decreased sympathetic innervation do to veins
generalized vasodilation
What is the difference between vein and arteriole vasoconstriction?
Vein vasoconstriction leads to more venous return due to decreasing storage capacity (forced to push out more) while arteriole vasoconstriction leads to decrease flow due to increased TPR
What are the functions of the respiratory system?
Respiration, endocrine function, immunological function, voice production, acid-base & metabolic regulation
Intrapleural pressure becomes negative first or intra-alveolar pressure during inspiration?
Intra-pleural pressure
What is the PO2 at the end of pulmonary capillaries =
100mmHg
What is the gas exchange flow like at the alveoli to capillaries?
Alveolar epithelium <> basement membrane <> capillary endothelium
What is the PO2 and PCO2 at alveoli?
Deoxygenated blood is PO2 = 40, PCO2 = 45 and reoxygenated blood is PO2 = 100, PCO2 = 40
What is the PO2 and PCO2 at tissue cells?
Oxygenated blood is PO2 = 95, PCO2 = 40 and deoxygenated blood is PO2 = 40, PCO2 = 45
What is the arterial PO2 before reaching left atria?
100 mmHg
What is the arterial PO2 once it reaches atria?
95 mmHg
What does inspiratory capacity involve?
IRV + TV
What does FRC involve?
ERV + RV
What does TLC involve?
VC + RV
IC + FRC
What does vital capacity involve?
ERV + TV + IRV
What does H+ stimulate?
Stimulates peripheral chemoreceptors which is important acid-base balance
What does PCO2 stimulate
PCO2 weakly stimulates peripheral chemoreceptors but strongly stimulates central chemoreceptors
Why does H+ not affect central chemoreceptors?
Because it cannot bypass blood brain barrier
What does PO2 stimulate?
Both central and peripheral chemoreceptors. Peripheral chemoreceptors are only stimulated when arterial PO2 has fallen < 60mmHg (emergency mechanism). It also directly depresses central chemoreceptors and respiratory center when < 60 mmHg
How long does it take for gases to equilibrate between the alveolar space and plasma?
0.25s
What does epinephrine do to bronchioles?
Binds to B2 adrenergic receptors for sympathetic mediation
What do irritants do to the bronchi?
Causes bronchoconstriction
What are the local controls of arterioles and bronchioles when PCO2 decreases and PO2 increases
Bronchioles constrict
pulmonary arteries dilate
systemic arteries constrict
What are the local controls of arterioles and bronchioles when PCO2 increases and PO2 decreases
Bronchioles dilate
pulmonary arteries constrict
systemic arteries dilate
The pressure of the blood exiting the right ventricle is
25
Can sympathetic stimulation activate both intrinsic and extrinsic control of SV
Yes
Is it a risk for Rh+ mother to have a Rh- fetus
No
How is blood type determined
By glycoproteins and glycolipids on RBC membrane
What would a blood clot in circumflex artery affect
Walls of the left atrium and posterior left ventricle
What is the effect of norepinephrine on the heart
Increase rate and strength of contraction
What does slowing the heart while holding the rate of venous return constant would cause
Increased CO
The depolarization phase of the cardiac muscle action potential occurs when
Na+ channel open
Early repolarization of cardiac muscle cells occurs when
K+ ion open, Na+ ion close
Final repolarization of cardiac muscle cells occurs when
K+ ion open
What allows cardiac muscle cell to undergo plateau phase
Ca2+ ion open, K+ ion open, Na+ ion close
Is preload an intrinsic regulation of the heart
Yes
Excess K+ ions in cardiac tissue cause heart rate and stroke volume to _____ and decreased extracellular K+ ions results in a ______ HR
decrease, increase
Why is snorkeling hard to breathe
Increased dead space
Which layer of the skin causes formation of fingerprints
reticular layer of dermis
A plastic surgeon would most likely make a skin incision at where
along the cleavage line / langer lines
which layer of epidermis has no nuclei in its cells
stratum corneum
what is the gland most responsible for cooling the skin
merocrine
what is contusion a result of
bleeding into dermis
keratin fibers develop as cells become thinner and flatter. true or flase
false
what attaches stratum basale to basement membrane
hemidesmosomes
how many layers does stratum granulosum have
3 - 5
does the papillary have areolar tissues
yes
is cholecalciferol formed in the dermis
no
are coiled, tubular glands that discharge directly onto skin surface apocrine glands
no
what is a muscle fiber
single muscle cell
which muscle cell has only 1 nucleus per cell
smooth muscle
what do triads consist of
2 terminal cisternae
1 T-tubule
at which stage does the myosin ATPase split the ATP molecule
energized stage
what is the Z-line
attachment point for actin molecules
what is the H-band
band where only myosin molecules are found
what is a muscle motor unit
1 nerve fiber and all muscles innervated by that nerve
what protein when moved exposes active sites on actin molecule
tropomyosin
binding of ACh with its receptor on muscle cells causes
opening of ligand gated sodium channel
what happens isometric muscle contraction overtime
amount of tension increases overtime during contraction
what do type IIx muscle fibers not have compared to type i and iia
high amount of myoglobin
if one has a limb immobilized in a cast for 6 weeks, what will happen
muscular atrophy; muscle fibers remain the same
what is the pathway of the withdraw reflex
afferent pathway > spinal cord > efferent pathway
how many spinal nerves are there
62 total (31 pairs)
what makes up the cauda equina
lumbar, sacral, coccygeal
what is the spinal cord continuous with
medulla oblongata
anterior horn of gray matter in thoracic region of spinal cord contains cell bodies of
sympathetic motor neurons
which reflex involves interneuron
withdrawal reflex
if one damages their C6 and C7 spinal cord, what would happen
loss of sensation in trunk below shoulders, lower limbs and portions of arms
no damage to phrenic nerves
which combination supply the sacral plexus
L4 - S4
if one injures their hip and is unable to extend their leg, which nerve has been damaged
femoral
which pair of spinal nerves does not supply any skin area
C1
most somatosensory neurons are
unipolar
at which point does activation gate of Na+ voltage gated channel close
before hyperpolarization (dip below resting potential)
does ACh have an effect on PNS
no
what do collagen and elastic fibers do
collagen = limit flexibility to prevent tissue damage
elastic = elastibility
what does an increase in EGF produced by salivary & duodenum glands does not lead to
does not inhibit epidermal repair
What is the characteristic of Addison’s disease
excess ACTH released by pituitary gland
what does not make up the integumentary system
hypodermis
integumentary system = cutaneous membrane, accessory structures, epidermal & dermal layers
how long is keratinisation
7 - 10 days
are comedomes due to keratinisation disorder in skin
true
what is the % of glial cells in CNS
90%
what happens if Na+ & K+ pumps absent
tiny fluxes accompanying repeated APs will eventually run down conc. gradient
further APs impossible
does norepinephrine bring about EPSPs or IPSPs
Both
what is not a general function of nervous system
olfactory (smell)
what is the clinical importance of CSF
spinal tap
what does CNS consist of
brain & spinal cord
according to somatotopic map, which body part occupies majority of top part of sensory homunculus
upper limb
what is found in front of central sulcus
premotor cortex
what joins cardia myocytes found in intercalated discs
gap junctions
what is present in skeletal muscles but not smooth muscles
troponin
to initiate smooth muscle contraction, Ca2+ ions have to bind to
calmodulin
what muscles do sprinters use
type iix
