Midterm 1 Review Flashcards
What is Anatomy?
The study of the structure of the body
What is Physiology
Defined as the study of the body’s function
Principle of Complementary Structure and Function
States that the body will build something specific to do a certain function. What a structure looks like is defined by its function and vise versa.
Gross Anatomical branches
- Surface
-Regional (deep)
-Systemic
-Developmental (conception)
-Clinical
Studies the genereal form and focus on specific areas
Microscopic
Cytology (cells)
Histology (tissues)
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomical structure provide clues to its function (function is described via parts)
Pathology
The study of disease and disorders ; helps to explain function
Sign / Symptom
Signs can be measured (swelling, bruising, etc)
Symptoms are described by person (pain)
Necrospy
autosopy on
Visection
perform on animals
External Examminations
Inspection
Palpitation
Percussion
Auscultation
Manipulation
Inspection
To look at , cut
Palpitation
To feel, (ankle swelling)
Percussion
To tap to detect hollow or fluid
Auscultation
To listen with stethoscope ( hear sounds, breathing)
Manipulation
Range of Motion
Internal Examinations
X-rays (photographic digital image) , MRI( useful when tissue is surronded by bone) , ultrasound (sound waves)
Endoscope
Thin small tube inserted into the body to look, remove tissue etc
Ophthalmoscope
Look into eye
Scope types
Gasropscopy
Bronchoscopy
Endotoscope
Vaginal Spectulum
Protoscopy
Anthroscope
Laparoscopy
Electroencephaology
Brain activty
Electrocardiogram
heart
Elctromyography
muscle
Angiography
blood
Levels of Life
atoms–>molecules–>organelles–>cell–>tissue–>organ–>system–> body
chemical - cellular– tissue–organ systen-body
Studies:
Gastroenterology
Urology
Cradiopulmonary
Oncology
Hematology
Immunology
Neurology
Orthopedic
Orthodontist
Physiotherapist
Gynecologist
Endocriniolgy
radiologist
Gastroenterology ( stomach)
Urology (reproductive)
Cradiopulmonary (hear)
Oncology(cancer)
Hematology(blood)
Immunology
Neurology
Orthopedic (bones)
Orthodontist
Physiotherapist
Gynecologist (female)
Endocriniolgy (hormone)
radiologist (x ray)
Life Functions
Humans are cellular so cells must be kept alive to function. Organ systems are to keep them alive. All cells need organ systems to meet their needs. Gas exchange and waste, nutrient exchange.
EX) Digestive system breaks down food and nutrients are delivered through the blood. Lungs exchange o2 with co2 and the o2 gets transported through the heart all throughout.
Anatomical Position
Body erect facing forward, palms facing upward
Directional terms
Used to describe ones structure in relation to another. Based off of this anatomical position.
Superior (cranial)
Toward head or upper part of structure. Ex) head is superior to the neck)
Inferior (caudal)
Away from the head, below Ex) apply to axial parts the stomach is to the heart
Anterior ventral
towards or in front of Ex) the ethmoid bone is anterior to the sphenoid
Posterior (dorsal)
Behind of or towards the back
Medial
closer to the midline
Lateral
away from midline
Intermediate
middle
Proximal
closer to the point of attachment
Distal
further from attachment
superficial
shallow
deep
depe
Longitude
a line parallel to the axis. Planes such as sagital and frontal are longitude as they are a straight line
Tranverse
right angles to axis
Lpislateral
same side
Contralateral
oppoiste side
Axial
The head, neck, truck,
Appendicular
limbs
cephalic region
frontal
orbital
mental
buccal
nasla
oral
Cervical
neck
Thoracic
sternal
axillary
mammary
scapular
abdominal
umbilical
Posteior to Abdominal
lumbar, sacral
Pelvic
inguinal and pubic
Appendicular : Arms
Acromial
Brachial
Antecubital
Antebrancial
Carpa
Manus
metacarapls
Legs
coxal
femoral
patelar
popliteral I behind the patella
Crual
sural
pedal
Tarsa
metatarsal
Body Planes
Sagital Plane: divides right and left antieorally
Frontal Plane (coronal) : Posterior and Anteior makes a frontal section
Transverse Plane: Divides the body from upper and lower, produces a cross section horizontally
Body Sections
Named after the cut:
Midsagital (midline) (median)
parasagital (paralell to the midline cut)
Oblique (cuts other than 90 degrees)
Body Cavitues/Membranes
Cavities provide protection over organs and are areas to hold them.
- Dorsal Cavity (Posteior)
-Ventral (Anterior)
Dorsal
CNS ( the cranial and the spinal cord)
Ventral
Thorasic and the Abdominapelvic area
Thoracic Region
Contains the pleura area which house the lungs
Also has the Mediastinum which hold the pericardium and the superior portion holds the aorta, trachea, esophagus)
Abdominalpelvic
Upper regions hold the abdominal cavity , visera
Lower regions hold the urinary and reproductive
Serous Membrane
covers the internal and external walls of cavities and the oragans
Visera
the internal organs covered in the cavity
Pareital
covers the walls of the cavities
Visera Pleura
covers the outer surface of the lungs
Parietal Pleura
Covers the inner walls of the thoracic cavity and the mediastinal wall
Viseral Pericadium
Covers the outer surface of the heart
Parietal Pericardium
Covers the inner pericardial cavity
Peritoneal Cavity
Contained within the adominalpelvic cavity lined with serous membranes called the peritoneum
Viseral Peritoneum
Covers the inner surface of the organs
Pariteal Peritoneum
lines the body cavity
cavities
oral, orbital, nasal, middle ear , synovial (not exposed)
Homeostasis
Equilibrium state where the body’s internal environment is balanced. Being microscopically balanced to be in a macro state.
Feedback Mechanisum
- Stimuli
- Receptors detect change
- Input
- Control Center
- Output
- Response
Autoregulation Intrinsically
when internal structures adjust
Intercellular and intracellular
Between cells and in cells
Extrinsic regulation
controlled via the nervous and endocrine
Negative Feedback and Example
Commonly used throughout body
Reduces the orignal stimuli or change and shuts it off. Example) Blood Glucose levels Alpha and Beta Cells
1. Stimuli low blood glucose
2. Pancrease alpha cells create glucagon
3. Liver breaks glycogen into glucose
4. Glucose is released
Stimuli high glucose –> beta cells insulin –> increases cell permutability to glucose, and liver stores as glycogen and fats
Positive Feedback
Not common
Amplifies the original stimuli , moves away from homeostasis. Example: Oxytocin and contractions
1. Hypo. release oxytocin
2. Muscles contract
3. head against cervix nerves triggers action potential
4. Nerves tell more contractions!
Disturbances in Homeostasis
Increase risk of disease
Contributes to aging
control systems become less effective
Metabolism
Cellular activities performed ; changing food and convert to cell energy ATP
Anabolism
metabolic reaction that builds molecules
Catabolism
Breaking into smaller
Nutrients
essential molecule’s in through diet
Metabolities
All molecules can be synthesized or broken down by reactions
Organic vs inorganic
Carbon, hydrgogen based vs not
5 Fundamental Characteristics of Water
1) High heat Capacity
2) High Heat of Vaporization
3) Polar Solvent properties
4) reactivity
5) Lubrincation
Specific heat Capacity
refers to the amount of energy required to heat 1 g of a substance to 1 degree. Water has a very high specific heat meaning we can absorb and give energy and this allows us to thermoregulate very well. We can either give energy or absorb it with very little temperature change. Maintain a constant temperature.
Heat of Vaporization
Amount of energy required to change something from a liquid to gas. Water requires a large amount of energy to break its bonds due to hydrogen bonding. Allows to have a effective way to cool down due to sweat. Allows for thermoregulation; sweating to cool down the body and expell energy.
Polarity
Water has a high polar allowing it to be a great universal solvent. Due to the polarity , molecules promote the dissociation of ions. Allows for ions to dissolve. Positive end on the hydrogen and neagtive oxygen ends creates this polarity
Allows for the dissociation of molecules and cations/anions electrolytes form.
Reactivity
Water has a high reactivity which allows for biochemical reactions such as digestion.
Hydrolysis: water is a reactant and is added to a reaction which causes larger macromolecule’s to break into small nutrient’s that can be absorbed. AB + water–> A + B
Dehydration Synthesis: taking water away allows larger molecules to form. A + B –> AB + water
Lubrication
Little friction ex) serous membranes
Aquerous solutions
water is the solvent
electrolytes
soluble inorganic molecules that conduct electricity.
Colloid
larger molecules that are evenly distributed among the substance
Suspension
larger molecules that leave residue and are not dissolved.
Hydrophobic
water hater, non-polar molecules ( lipids, triglycerides, waxes) need carrier proteins.
Hydrophillic
Water loving, polar and can move easily in the body ( proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, electrolytes, gluclose)
pH
the negative log of hydronium concentration.
ph= -Log[H]
inverse scale
so a high H means very acidic = low ph
low H+ = high pH basic
Acids and Bases
Acids are proton donors and will donate the hydrogens and dissociate in water. Produce H+ in water
Bases remove the hydrogen and are proton acceptors. They dissociate in water to produce OH iosn
Respiratory Acid
H2CO3 ( carbonic acid) is a voltaic acid and will quickly dissociate into CO2 and H20 when breathed out. Focused on carbon dioxide con.
Metabolic Acid
From metabolisum of organic compounds ( non volatine)
- Incomplete oxidation of glucose ( latic Acid )
- Incomplete oxidation of fats ( keto Acids: build up of ketones which raise H+ concentration) Major source of base breakdown of amino acids yielding amonia.
Acidoisis
Plasma pH below 7.35-7.45
Alkalosis
ph above 7.45
Metabolic Acidosis Causes
Can be caused by an increase in latic acid buildup
Kidney disease and H+ ions are not being exerted; phosphoric and sulphuric acids buildup
Vomting causes a loss of the alkaline upper intestine
aspirin overdoes
diabetes mellitus: fatty acids–> ketones–>ketoacidiosis
Anaerobic Metabolism
Occurs when latic acid buildup in venous blood is correct through hyperventilation.
Metabolic Alkaloisis
Vomiting acid from stomach and intake through antacids. Dropping your hydronium ion concentrartion and your body has to replace them.
Respiratory Acidosis
Damage to the respiratory centre in medulla oblongata
Obstruction of the respiratory tract, pneumia. Unable to expel CO2.
Respiratory Alkalosis
Caused by higher altitudes or hyperventilation where too much CO2 is being breathed out. This then lowers your hydronium ion concentration.
Buffers
weak acid and its conjugate base
Bicarbonate Buffer System
Bicarbonate is going to react with the hydrogen ion to from carbonic acid. Exists in ECF to prevent ph changes. If hydrogens are expelled, they will quickly bind to bicarbonate and produce carbonic acid as a temporary place to mitigate the increase in H+
Respiratory Compensation
H20 + CO2 –> H2CO3–> HCO3 + H+
Situation: High Hydronium concentration decreases our pH due to lactic acid . Equilibrium shirts to the left and increases the CO2 in our body. Excess CO2 will cause us to hyperventilate in an attempt to get rid of that excess gas.
Situation: Low amounts of H+ will increase our pH. This will cause our equilibrium to shift right and will cause CO2 to decrease. Low co2 will make us hypo ventilate to conserve it.
Renal Compensation
CO2 in the cell will travel to the blood and react with water. Carbonic acid will be produced which is voltaic and will quickly dissociate into H+ and bicarbonate. Bicarbonate will go to the cellular fluid and become part of buffer mechabisum, while the hydrogen ion will flow and shift into the tubule. Then the H+ will react with the bicarbonate to make carbonic acid. Carbonic Acid will be broken through an enzyme and produce water and co2, water will be urinated out while the CO2 will combine with water and produce carbonic acid. cycle repeats!
Overall, the kidneys work by creating water to hold onto the extra hydrogens and balacne pH.
Hemogloblin Buffer
Carbon dixoide released by cells travels through the blood to react with water. Carbonic acid is produced and will quickly dissociate into H+ and bicarbonate. Bicarbonate will become a primary buffer while H+ will combines with oxyhemoglobin. Due to the H+ pressence, O2 will be relased into cells. The hemoglobin will hold onto the hydronium.
Now, in the lungs as oxygen eneters and reacts with hemoglobin (with the H+) we will get oxyhemoglobin and hydronium. Bicarbonate will react with that single hydronium producing carbonic acid which as always dissociates into water and co2. getting rid of hydronium through urine or breathing out.
Salts
Any ionic compound that does not contain H+ cation or OH anion. produced from the reaction between a acid and base. Cation base and anion acid
Carbohydrates
starches, sugars: organic molecules that always have a carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, polar
Monosacchrides
simple building sugar blocks , contain C, H, O and simplest form of carbohydrates
Deoxyribose (DNA) and ribose (RNA) are types of these
The joining of two monosacchrides caused by dehydration sythesis.
Isomerism
chemical compound with the same formual but different structure.
Disaccharide
Two joined monosaccharide’s formed through dehydration synthesis.
Glycosidic Bonds
Between indepedent glucose bonds
Polysaccharides
long chains of monosaccharides:
1. Starches (Alpha) easily digested and have alpha glycosidic linkages. Increase gut motility, insoluble fibers. Enzymes are better at breaking these.
2. Cellulose (fiber) hard to digest (soluble fiber)
3. Glycogen (easy to digest) stored in liver, muscle and has beta glycosidic linkages made. Stored form of glucose. Ennzymes cannot break.
Hyperglyecemia
High blood glucose/sugar, if insluin cannot prepare cells for glucose
Type 1 Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
Destroys Beta cells so there is no insluin
Type 2: Non insulin dependent
Cell resistance ; hyperseceretion of Insulin led to cells stop taking in glucose.
Lipids
Nonplar, insoluble, and hyrophobic
must have a transport mechanisum as they cannot dissolve.
6 groups:
fatty acids, eiconsanoid, glycerides, steriods, phospolipids, glycolipids
Fatty Acids
Long hydrocarbons with carboxylic acid group at one end which is hydrophillic. Mainly nonpolar: Allow them to attach to building blocks. Only the hydrophillic end likes water so longer tails are less souble. Building blocks of fats
Saturated vs Unsaturated vs trans fats
Saturated are each carbon atom is attached, no double bonds only single
Unsaturated there is at least 1 double bond
Transfats have hydrogen on opposite sides and a trans double bond
econsanoids
non-polar, lipids which are derived from arachidonic acid (cannot be built) two types:
Leukotrienes: white blood cells released with prostaglandins
Prostaglandin: local hormone and causes regional inflammation due to damage
Glycerides
A result of dehydration synthesis between glycerol and fatty acids chains. One of three dehydration sythesis reactions result in systhesis of triglycerides.
Triglycerides
The largest energy stored in the body and have three main functions. Contains a glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains and made from 2 dehydration reactions.
- energy source
-insulation
-Protection
Fats (ketosis)
(glucose replacement) Result from excess breakdown of fats which create ketones in the liver if no glycogen is available. Leads to ketoacidosis High amounts of hydronium.
Steriods
Large lipid molecules based on 4 hydrocarbon structure. (nonpolar) Cholestrol is a buidling block for other steriods in the body.
Steroid function
- Plasma membrane (cholesterol structure)
- Sex hormones (testostrone, estrogen)
- Tissue metabolism and mineral balance (aldoestrone na regulation. Cortisol: reduces inflam, stress, moblize glucose, and boost immune, mainatin blood sugar)
- Bile salt ( cholestral helps to emulsify fats breakdown
Coritsol
- maintains blood pressure
- Bolster immunity
- reduces inflammation
Phosplopidid
Sythesized by body from fatty acids. Phosphate group links to a diglyceride to a non-lipid. Make up the cell’s membrane
Has a polar (hydrophillic head) and a non polar (hydrohobic tail)
ECF (mainly h20)
Glycolipids
similar to carbohydrate and replaces phosphate
Proteins
The most abundant by weight macromocule in the body. Contains C,H,O,N and is resposnible for:
- Support (creates the framework for the body)
- Movement( muscle contraction , actin and myosin)
- Transport (hemogloboin, ,move insoluble moluecles)
- Buffering ( prevent dangerous pH changes
- Coordination Control (protein hormones influence metabolic functions) help regulate enzymes
- Defence ( skin protection)
Amino groups
Soluble contains amino group, R group ( makes special) , and a carboxylic Acid (COOH)
What is Anatomy?
The study of the structure of the body
