Full Review (AI version) Flashcards
What is a sarcomere?
A sarcomere is the basic unit of striated muscle tissue responsible for contraction.
What are the types of muscle fibers?
There are three main types of muscle fibers: Type I (slow-twitch), Type IIa (fast-twitch oxidative), and Type IIb (fast-twitch glycolytic).
What role do muscle proteins play in contraction?
Muscle proteins, such as actin and myosin, interact to enable muscle contraction.
What is the recruitment order of muscle fibers?
Muscle fibers are recruited in the order of Type I, then Type IIa, and finally Type IIb as more force is needed.
What is the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
The sarcoplasmic reticulum stores and releases calcium ions, crucial for muscle contraction.
What are the periods of contraction in muscles?
The periods of contraction include the latent period, contraction phase, and relaxation phase.
What are the types of ATP generation in muscle?
ATP can be generated through aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, and creatine phosphate breakdown.
What are the layers of muscle fascia?
The layers of muscle fascia include the epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium.
What is rigor mortis?
Rigor mortis is the postmortem stiffening of muscles due to chemical changes in the muscle fibers.
What are the products of anaerobic and aerobic respiration?
Anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid, while aerobic respiration produces carbon dioxide and water.
What is the difference between isotonic and isometric contractions?
Isotonic contractions involve muscle shortening with movement, while isometric contractions involve muscle tension without movement.
What are the features of cardiac muscle cells?
Cardiac muscle cells are striated, branched, and interconnected, with intercalated discs for synchronized contraction.
What is the sliding filament theory of contraction?
The sliding filament theory explains how muscle fibers contract by the sliding of actin over myosin filaments.
What is the role of acetylcholinesterase in the synaptic cleft?
Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft, terminating the signal for muscle contraction.
What are the functions of smooth muscle?
Smooth muscle functions include involuntary movements, regulating blood vessel diameter, and controlling organ contractions.
What is the role of glycogen in muscles?
Glycogen serves as a stored form of glucose for energy during muscle contraction.
What are the muscle fiber types and their functions?
Type I fibers are for endurance, Type IIa for moderate intensity, and Type IIb for high-intensity activities.
What are agonist, antagonist, fixator, and synergist?
Agonist muscles cause movement, antagonists oppose movement, fixators stabilize joints, and synergists assist in movement.
What are common muscle disorders?
Muscle disorders include muscular dystrophy, myopathy, and fibromyalgia, each with distinct causes and symptoms.
What is hepatic portal circulation?
Hepatic portal circulation is the pathway of blood from the gastrointestinal tract to the liver.
What is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion?
Mechanical digestion involves physical breakdown of food, while chemical digestion involves enzymatic breakdown.
What is the function of MALT?
MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue) plays a role in immune response in the digestive tract.
What is the role of bile in the small intestine?
Bile aids in the emulsification and digestion of fats in the small intestine.
What does the appendix do?
The appendix is thought to play a role in gut flora maintenance and immune function.
What are the functions of low pH in the stomach?
Low pH in the stomach aids in digestion and protects against pathogens.
What is the fat absorption process?
Fat absorption involves emulsification by bile, followed by digestion by lipases and absorption through intestinal cells.
Why do we have zymogens?
Zymogens are inactive enzyme precursors that prevent premature digestion of proteins.
What is the swallowing process?
The swallowing process involves voluntary and involuntary phases to move food from the mouth to the esophagus.
What are the stomach cell types and their secretions?
Stomach cell types include parietal cells (HCl), chief cells (pepsinogen), and mucous cells (mucus).
What are the functions of CCK and Secretin?
CCK stimulates bile release and enzyme secretion, while Secretin stimulates bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas.
What are the layers of the digestive tract?
The layers of the digestive tract include the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa.
What creates the stomach mucous barrier?
The stomach mucous barrier is created by mucous cells that secrete mucus to protect the stomach lining.
What does saliva do?
Saliva moistens food, contains enzymes for digestion, and helps with taste.
What does the bolus become?
The bolus becomes chyme after mixing with gastric juices in the stomach.
What are cell secretions in the stomach?
Cell secretions in the stomach include hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, and mucus.
What enzymes do what?
Enzymes like amylase digest carbohydrates, pepsin digests proteins, and lipase digests fats.
What is the function of intrinsic factor?
Intrinsic factor is essential for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the intestine.
What stimulates gastric secretion?
Gastric secretion is stimulated by the presence of food, neural signals, and hormones like gastrin.
What do bacteria in the large intestine do?
Bacteria in the large intestine ferment undigested carbohydrates and produce vitamins.
What are taste buds (Lingual papillae)?
Taste buds are sensory organs on the tongue that detect taste stimuli.
What is ankyloglossia?
Ankyloglossia, or tongue-tie, is a condition where the tongue’s movement is restricted.
What does a meal high in fat do in the small intestine?
A meal high in fat stimulates bile release and slows gastric emptying.
What does leptin do?
Leptin regulates energy balance and inhibits hunger.
What is metabolism?
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in the body that maintain life.
What are the products of the breakdown of proteins?
The breakdown of proteins produces amino acids.
What is the pathway of cellular respiration?
The pathway of cellular respiration includes glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
What is the process of lipid metabolism?
Lipid metabolism involves the breakdown of fats for energy and the synthesis of lipids.
What happens in the duodenum?
In the duodenum, chyme is mixed with bile and pancreatic juices for digestion.
What are polyps, hemorrhoids, hiatal hernia, diverticulitis, and cirrhosis?
These are conditions affecting the digestive system, each with distinct causes and symptoms.
What are the differences between spermatogenesis and oogenesis?
Spermatogenesis produces sperm continuously, while oogenesis produces eggs in a cyclical manner.
What reactions are involved in food catabolism?
Food catabolism involves hydrolysis and oxidation reactions to break down nutrients.
How do we break down triglycerides?
Triglycerides are broken down by lipases into glycerol and fatty acids.
Which process produces the most ATP?
Aerobic respiration produces the most ATP compared to anaerobic processes.
What is ketosis?
Ketosis is a metabolic state where the body uses fat for fuel instead of carbohydrates.
Which macromolecule yields the most energy?
Fats yield the most energy per gram compared to carbohydrates and proteins.
What is the cause of pernicious anemia?
Pernicious anemia is caused by a deficiency of vitamin B12 due to lack of intrinsic factor.
What is the male reproductive duct system?
The male reproductive duct system includes the epididymis, vas deferens, and urethra.
What are tropic hormones in the reproductive system?
Tropic hormones regulate the function of other endocrine glands in the reproductive system.
What are the stages of the uterine cycle?
The uterine cycle includes the menstrual phase, proliferative phase, and secretory phase.
What causes menstruation?
Menstruation is caused by the shedding of the uterine lining when pregnancy does not occur.
What stimulates proliferation in the uterine cycle?
Estrogen stimulates proliferation in the uterine cycle.
What hormone begins follicular development?
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) begins follicular development.
What are the epithelial linings of the reproductive tracts?
Epithelial linings in reproductive tracts vary by region, including stratified squamous and simple columnar epithelium.
