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Animal Nutrition > Lipids > Flashcards

Lipids Flashcards

1
Q

What makes something a lipid?

A

-Insoluble in water (hydrophobic)
-Energy dense
-Structural Diverse

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2
Q

Are some lipids amphipathic? What is an example of one? Why is it important?

A

-Yes, some have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts
-Phospholipids are amphipathic
-Amphipathic is important to digestion

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3
Q

What does it mean when a lipid is energy dense?

A

-1 gram of fat contains 9.45 kcal while protein and carbohydrate only contain 4.1 kcal/g
-lipids have twice the energy as proteins and carbohydrates

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3
Q

What does it mean by a lipid is structural diverse?

A

-compared to proteins and carbohydrates, lipids are polymers

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4
Q

What are some functional characteristics of lipids related to digestion?

A

-Energy dense
-Acids in the solubilizing and absorption of lipid soluble vitamins
-Structural contribution to cells
-Act as messengers

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5
Q

How is a lipid being energy dense relate to nutrition? What are examples of this?

A

-supplies energy in the diet
-also a storage form of energy in the body
-fatty acids in adipose
-adipose tissue: storage form of fat

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6
Q

How do lipids in the diet aid in vitamin lipid digestion?

A

-Acids in the solubilizing and absorption of lipid soluble vitamins

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7
Q

How do lipids contribute to the structure of cells? What is an example of something lipid based?

A

-Phospholipids in membranes
-cortisol and any steroids are lipid base

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8
Q

How do we classify lipids?

A

-By their diverse structures

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9
Q

What are the 2 varieties of lipid structures?

A

-glycerol based lipid
-anything else
-basically have a glycerol or not

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10
Q

What are examples of non-glycerol based lipids?

A

-cholesterol
-fatty acids
-steroids
-prostaglandins
-sphingomyelin/cerebrosides: nervous system lipids

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11
Q

What are examples of glycerol based lipid?

A

-Triglycerides (triacylglycerols)
-Glycolipids
-Phospholipids
-(lipid and a sugar)

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12
Q

What are the two classifications of glycerol based lipids?

A

-Simple
-Compound

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13
Q

What is a simple glycerol based lipid?

A

-triglycerides (glycerol and 3 fatty acids)

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14
Q

What is a compound glycerol based lipid?

A

-Phospholipids and glycolipids (glycerol and 2 fatty acids)
-Phospholipids: adds a phosphate group and possibly an additional functional group
-Glycolipid: adds a sugar like glucose or galactose

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15
Q

Where are triglycerides found?

A

-oilseeds like
-soybean
-cotton seed
-sunflower seed
-canola
-peanut
-seeds that can be pressed for oils

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16
Q

What is a glycerol composed of?

A

-3 carbon molecules and 3 oxygen molecules

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17
Q

What is the storage form of fat in humans and animals?

A

Triglycerides

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18
Q

Are oils from seeds simple or compound glycerolipids?

A

Simple

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19
Q

What are examples of compound glycolipid and where are they found?

A

-Phospholipid: found in cell membrane of animals and plants
-Glycolipid: found in plants, structural lipids of plants

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20
Q

Do phospholipids and glycolipids make up a small or large portion of total mass?

A

Small

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21
Q

How are fatty acids mostly found?

A

-fatty acids are most often found esterified meaning attached to something
-Fatty aids rarely found free

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22
Q

What are fatty acids often attached to?

A

-glycerol backbone like
-a triglyceride
-a phospholipid
-or a glycolipids

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23
Q

What do all triglycerides have?

A

-a glycerol backbone

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24
Q

Are carbons of glycerol in distinct positions in a triglyceride?

A

Yes

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25
Q

In a triglyceride how many fatty acids are attached to a glycerol backbone?

A

-3 fatty acids are attached to glycerol backbone

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26
Q

How do fatty acids vary?

A

-Chain length
-unsaturation: diverse come from fatty acids

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27
Q

What do fatty acids have?

A

-an aliphatic chain lacking oxygen and a carboxylic acid group

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28
Q

How does chain length vary in fatty acids?

A

-from 2 to 20 carbons
-generally even numbers of carbons in plants and animals

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29
Q

What are examples of variations in chain length of fatty acids?

A

-Two carbon acetic acid C2H4O
-Twenty carbon eicosanoid acid C20H40O2
-In animals even number carbon fatty acids
-Same number of oxygen no matter what 2:1 ratio (H:C)

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30
Q

What does saturation mean?

A

-saturation is a measure of the number of double bonds in a fatty acid
-no double bonds = saturated fatty acid
-meaning all the bond positions of carbons are occupied by other atoms

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31
Q

What does unsaturated mean?

A

-have multiple double bonds
-one double bond = monounsaturated fatty acid
-two double bonds = polyunsaturated fatty acids
-unsaturated has double bonds btw carbons

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32
Q

What are some common fatty acids?

A

-16 carbon palmitic acid (saturated)
-18 carbon stearic acid (saturated)
-18 carbon oleic acid (monounsaturated)
-18 carbon linoleic acid (polyunsaturated)

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33
Q

What do double bonds do to a chain of carbons?

A

-straightens it out

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34
Q

What does cis mean?

A

-hydrogen on same side of the chain

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35
Q

What does trans mean?

A

-hydrogens on opposite side of the chain

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36
Q

What does cis geometry implicate about fatty acid shape?

A

-cis less interaction btw branches
-more space

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37
Q

Is there a higher or lower melting point of a fatty acid has a longer chain length?

A

-Higher melting point

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38
Q

Is there a higher or lower melting point of a fatty acid if it is more saturated (less unsaturated)?

A

-means more single bonds
-so lower melting point

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39
Q

What do polyunsaturated fatty acids tend to be at room temperature?

A

-liquid (oils)

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40
Q

What do longer chains, saturated fatty acids tend to be at room temperature?

A

-Solid

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41
Q

Do positions of double bonds vary?

A

-Yes, along the chain

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42
Q

How does double bond position nomenclature work?

A

-count from the terminal methyl end of the fatty acid
-omega numbers

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43
Q

What does omega w-6 mean? omega-3?

A

-a double bond is 6 carbons from the methyl end of the fatty acid
-omega 3: 3 carbons in

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44
Q

What are the two essential fatty acids in the diet?

A

-Linoleic acid
-Linolenic acid

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45
Q

What is linoleic acid?

A

-18 carbon w-6
-2 double bonds
-omega 6: first double bond at 12th carbon

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46
Q

What is linolenic acid?

A

-18 carbon w-3
-18 carbons
-3 double bonds
-omega 3: first double bind at 15th carbon

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47
Q

What geometry are linoleic and linolenic acid in?

A

Cis

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48
Q

Why are linoleic and linolenic acid essential?

A

-Animals can only add double bonds to fatty acids at position 9 or less along the carbon chain

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49
Q

Where do essential fatty acids have double bonds?

A

-btw carbon 9 and the methyl end of the fatty acid

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50
Q

Where are essential fatty acids found?

A

-in cell membranes as fatty acid constituents of phospholipids

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51
Q

What are essential fatty acids used for?

A

-metabolism: elongated (add more carbons in units of 2) and further desaturated (add more double bonds than in precursor essential fatty acids)

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52
Q

What can linoleic acid (C18:2) become?

A

-arachidonic acid (C20:4)

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53
Q

What are essential fatty acids precursor to?

A

-prostaglandins
-thromboxane
-leukotrienes
-short lived local: blood clotting, luteolysis, and immune function

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54
Q

What can linolenic acid (C18:3) become?

A

-eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5)
-docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6)
~important for nervous system lipids

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55
Q

What omega can fish make?

A

-omega 3
-they get through diet

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56
Q

Lipid through ruminant?

A
  1. Dietary lipids
  2. Rumen: site of glycolipid hydrolysis and modification of fatty acid profile
  3. Acid stomach
  4. Small intestine
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57
Q

Lipid through non-ruminant?

A
  1. Dietary lipid
  2. Acid stomach
  3. Small intestine: site of glycolipid hydrolysis
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58
Q

How does the rumen modify lipids?

A

-Microbial lipolysis of glycolipids and biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids
-Emulsification in the small intestine

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59
Q

What do herbivores like ruminants typically consume?

A

-low lipid diets compared to non-ruminants

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60
Q

Examples of whole plant (forage) lipids?

A

-glycolipid
-phospholipid

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61
Q

Example of grain (concentrates) lipids?

A

-triglycerides

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62
Q

Where are glycolipids found?

A

-structural lipids in plants (hay)

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63
Q

What happens when a ruminant has to much lipids?

A

-disrupts their digestive

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64
Q

How does rumen microbial lipolysis work?

A

-bacteria produce lipases capable of hydrolyzing glycolipids

65
Q

What do phospholipids turn into during rumen microbial lipolysis?

A

-2 fatty acids
-phosphoglycerol

66
Q

What do glycolipids turn into during rumen microbial lipolysis?

A

-2 fatty acids
-glycoglycerol

67
Q

What do triglycerides turn into during rumen microbial lipolysis?

A

-3 fatty acids
-glycerol

68
Q

Where is glycerol process mostly done in ruminants?

A

-in the rumen (hydrolyzed)

69
Q

How do ruminants modify unsaturated fatty acids?

A

-rumen microbes hydrogenate unsaturated fatty acids
-biohydrogenation

70
Q

How does biohydrogenation work?

A

-hydrogenation by rumen microbes as opposed to industrial hydrogenation that produces margarine
-done by living things
-reduces the number of double bonds
-reduces unsaturation
-increased the saturation of dietary fatty acids

71
Q

Are essential fatty acids saturated or unsaturated?

A

Unsaturated

72
Q

What does biohydrogenation do to dietary fatty acids?

A

-reduces the dietary content of essential fatty acids

73
Q

Do ruminants become essential fatty acid deficient? How do they cope?

A

-No, ruminants have evolved to conserve (robust) essential fatty acids to live on low EFA
~Conversation of the absorbed EFA
-Hydrogenation reduces number of double bond

74
Q

What is the rumen outflow of dietary lipids?

A
  1. Dietary lipids enter esterified as glycolipids
  2. Lipids leave the rumen as free fatty acids
  3. Unsaturated fatty acids enter with feeds
  4. much of entering unsaturated fatty acids leave saturated and only some of the entering unsaturated fatty acids leave the rumen intact (60-90% of unsaturated fatty acids entering the rumen are hydrogenated)
75
Q

What is the difference btw free and volatile fatty acids?

A

-Volatile: 4 carbons or less and leave through wall of rumen
-Free: exit rumen and go to small intestine

76
Q

How do non-ruminant digest lipids?

A

-Hydrolysis of glycolipids
-Emulsification

77
Q

How does lipase work?

A

-Lipase enzymes hydrolyze glycolipids in the lumen of the small intestine
-released by the pancreas
-go to lumen

78
Q

What does phospholipase hydrolyzes?

A
  • phospholipids
    -products: 1 fatty acid and 1 lysophospholipid
79
Q

What does pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes?

A

-triglycerides
-products: 2 fatty acids and a monoglyceride

80
Q

Why is emulsification important?

A

-Lipids are hydrophobic and digesta is aqueous
~mixing is an issue

81
Q

What is emulsification?

A

-solubilizes lipids into droplets within the digesta

82
Q

How does emulsification work?

A

-relies on amphipathic molecules: those that can interact with hydrophobic and hydrophilic aspects of the lipids and aqueous digesta
-droplets containing different molecules with the effect of stabilizing lipids in the lumen of the small intestine for absorption

83
Q

What is the structure when emulsification happens?

A

-2 monoglycerides
-phospholipids
-bile salts

84
Q

What does emulsification produce?

A

-mixed micelles

85
Q

What do mix micelles interact with?

A

-interact with enterocytes

86
Q

How does the absorption of lipids work?

A
  1. the enterocyte plasma membrane consists of lipid (phospholipids)
  2. Fatty acids, 2 monoglycerides, and phospholipid digestion products are capable of crossing-flipping- the apical plasma membrane of the enterocyte
  3. Mostly, fatty acids in mixed micelles are absorbed across the plasma membrane
87
Q

What type of transports do some types of lipids use?

A

-cholesterol bc very long chain saturated fatty acid

88
Q

How does re-esterification work?

A

-absorb fatty acids and 2 monoglycerides are re-esterified to triglycerides for export from the enterocyte

89
Q

How is this different from amino acid and glucose

A

-Amino acid and glucose are released into the blood in the form they are absorbed
-While lipids are re-esterified and reassembled

90
Q

What do enterocyte produce?

A

-triglycerides using the products of glycolipid digestion: reassembly of glycolipids

91
Q

What does the production of chylomicrons serve?

A

-packing absorbed lipids for circulation

92
Q

What are chylomicrons?

A

-lipid-rich particles assembled from triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids and some protein in the enterocyte

93
Q

Where are chylomicrons released?

A

-NOT in the blood
-Released into the lymphatic vessels of the small intestine called lacteals
-Chylomicrons enter blood at the thoracic duct where lymph joins venous blood

94
Q

What do chylomicrons do?

A

-allow lipids to float through blood

95
Q

What is on the outside of a chylomicron?

A

-phospholipids allows enter to aqueous solution

96
Q

If chylomicrons are released into the lymph and not blood, when does the liver get access to the absorbed dietary lipids?

A

-As blood reaches the liver

97
Q

What can be done to essential fatty acids?

A

-Elongation and desaturation to longer chain polyunsaturated fatty acids

98
Q

What type of fatty acids can plants produce?

A

-fatty acids with double bonds beyond carbon 9 (counting from the carboxyl carbon)

99
Q

Where does linoleic acid have double bonds at?

A

Has double bonds at carbon 9 and 12

100
Q

Where does linoleic acid have double bonds at?

A

Has double bonds at carbons 9, 12, and 15

101
Q

What characteristics do fatty acids derived from EFA that are functional in animals have?

A

-longer chains
-more double bonds

102
Q

Where can animals add double bonds?

A

carbons 5 and 6

103
Q

What is elongation?

A

-addition of 2 carbon units

104
Q

What is desaturation?

A

addition of more double bonds

105
Q

What is arachidonic acid an important precursor to?

A

for other regulatory lipid molecules like prostaglandins

106
Q

What is the process of desaturation of linoleic acid?

A

-add double bond at carbon 6
-add two carbons; double bonds now at 8, 11, and 14
-add double bond at 5

107
Q

What is lipogenesis?

A

-fatty acid synthesis from precursors

108
Q

Are lipogenesis and fatty acid synthesis the same thing?

A

Yes

109
Q

Where can fatty acids be produced?

A

-in the liver
-or adipose tissue
-depending on the species

110
Q

Where are fatty acids produced in humans and avian species?

A

Liver

111
Q

Where are fatty acids produced in pigs, ruminants, and horses?

A

Adipose tissue

112
Q

Where can rodents produce fatty acids?

A

Both the liver and adipose tissue

113
Q

What is the substrate for lipogenesis?

A

-Acetate in the form of acetyl-CoA is used to make fatty acid synthesis in the body

114
Q

What is the major source of acetyl-CoA in non-ruminants for fatty acid synthesis?

A

-Glucose
-(glycolysis)

115
Q

What is the major source of acetyl-CoA in ruminants for fatty acid synthesis?

A

-acetate is produced in the rumen from fermentation of carbohydrates

116
Q

What is citrate and intermediate of? and what can it be cleaved to release?

A

-Kerb’s cycle
-acetyl-CoA

117
Q

Where does lipogenesis occur?

A

Cytoplasma

118
Q

What is the process of lipogenesis?

A

-starts with carboxylation of acetyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA carboxylase
-Acetyl-CoA + CO2 + ATP -> Malonyl-CoA +ADP + Pi

119
Q

What are the 4 steps carried out by fatty acid synthetase in fatty acid synthesis?

A

-Condensation: lose CO2
-Reduction
-Dehydration
-Reduction
~These steps are repeated over and over until desired chain length: often 16 carbons

120
Q

What are the two enzymes in fatty acid synthesis?

A

-Acetyl-CoA carboxylase
-Fatty acid synthetase

121
Q

What does Acetyl-CoA carboxylase do?

A

adds CO2 to acetyl-CoA to produce malonyl-CoA

122
Q

What does Fatty acid synthetase do?

A

-carries out all other reactions of fatty acid synthesis
-adds acetyl-CoA units to the elongation chain producing even number carbon fatty acids
-requires 2 NADPH2 to complete the 2 carbon elongation of the fatty acid

123
Q

Do hydrogens close bonds off?

A

Yes

124
Q

Components of fatty acid storage

A

-adipose tissue
-esterification to triglycerides
-lipolysis
-circulation

125
Q

What is a compact way to store energy?

A

fatty acids

126
Q

How are fatty acids stored?

A

As triglycerides in adipocytes of adipose tissue

127
Q

Where can triglycerides be present?

A

-in other cells as lipid droplets
-liver hepatocytes or skeletal muscle cells (small droplets)

128
Q

Are adipocytes almost entirely triglycerides?

A

Yes

129
Q

How do fatty acids from diet or synthesized get packed?

A

-into a condensed form
-efficient cells, push cytoplasm against cell wall, and store triglycerides

130
Q

What are the substrates of fatty acid storage?

A

-dietary fatty acids
-fatty acids synthesized by lipogenesis in the body

131
Q

How are fatty acids synthesized in the body?

A

-synthesized in the adipose tissue then incorporated into triglycerides

132
Q

Where is fatty acid synthesized? and released as what? and where?

A

-synthesized in liver
-released as triglycerides into the blood, hydrolyzed to release glycerol and fatty acids to be uptake by cells of tissues including adipose tissue

133
Q

What happens to fatty acids from the diet after absorption?

A

-re-esterified to triglycerides and
-released as chylomicrons

134
Q

Where are triglycerides released and what happens to them?

A

-released into blood
-hydrolyzed to release glucose and fatty acids to be uptake by cells of tissues including adipose tissue

135
Q

What is the esterification pathway for fatty acids?

A

In adipose tissue, fatty acids are esterified to glycerol through glycerol-3-phosphate pathway

136
Q

How does triglyceride synthesis start? and the end?

A

-starts with glycerol-3-phosphate and
-through the sequential addition of 3 fatty acids becomes a triglyceride

137
Q

What is the process of triglyceride synthesis?

A

-sequence of 3 fatty acids
-use fatty acid with acetyl-CoA
1. fatty acid CoA interacts with glyercol-3-phosphate
2. Acyl-CoA added
3. phosphate removed
4. Another CoA

138
Q
A
139
Q

What are the three fatty acids involved with triglyceride synthesis?

A

-Lysophosphatidic acid
-Phosphatidic acid
-diacylglycerol (DAG)

140
Q

When does stored energy get taken out of storage?and what happens?

A

-when there is an energy deficit
-fatty acids are mobilized/liberated from triglyceride storage in adipocytes for energy in other tissues
~Only fatty acids are released from adipose tissue not triglycerides

141
Q

What happens to triglycerides in lipolysis?

A

-triglycerides are hydrolyzed and the products are released into the blood in small concentration

142
Q

What products are released when triglycerides are hydrolyzed in lipolysis?

A

-glycerol
-3 free (non-esterified) fatty acids

143
Q

Where can free fatty acids circulate?

A

-in the blood to tissues and cells that need substrates for energy

144
Q

What carries out lipolysis in adipocytes?

A

hormone-sensitive lipase

145
Q

What is the process of lipolysis?

A

-Adipose tissue
-Adipocytes
-liquid droplet
-triacylglycerol
-glycerol and 3 fatty acids
-glycerol goes into gluconeogenesis
-Fatty acids go into the TCA cycle
-Both produce energy

146
Q

What does adipose tissue store?

A

-triglycerides in large liquid droplets for energy reserve

147
Q

What regulates lipolysis?

A

-stimulated by epinephrine, glucagon, and norepinephrine
-Inhibited by insulin

148
Q

Why is lipolysis stimulated by epinephrine, glucagon, and norepinephrine? and inhibited by insulin?

A

-stimulation hormone sensitive
-fight or flight epi glucagon low glucose get from adipose
-insulin inhibits bc insulin storage

149
Q

What does fatty acid beta oxidation do?

A

-get energy back out of fatty acids

150
Q

Where do free fatty aids enter once they have been absorbed by a tissue?

A

Into the mitochondria to be oxidized

151
Q

Where does oxidation (kerb’s cycle) occur?

A

Mitochondria (liver, skeletal, and cardiac muscle)

152
Q

Where does total energy from oxidizing come from?

A
  • beta-oxidation
    -acetyl-CoA
    in the kerb’s cycle
153
Q

Major steps of beta oxidation?

A

-free fatty acids enter the mitochondria
-get oxidized (oxygen added)
-broken down into acetyl-CoA
-feed acetyl-CoA into kerb’s cycle (get energy from this)
-liver socks up energy

154
Q

Detailed steps of beta oxidation

A
  1. CoA is added to a fatty acid to produce fatty acid acyl-CoA which enters B-oxidation and through sequential steps produces FADH2 and NADH2 that can be used through oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP
    -Acetyl-CoA is also produced and enters the kerb’s cyle to produce more ATP, FADH2 and NADH2
155
Q

What type of fatty acid structure does beta oxidation use?

A

16 carbon fatty acid

156
Q

How many cycles of beta oxidation does a 16 carbon fatty acid go through?

A

8 cycles

157
Q

What is the yield of beta oxidation?

A

-7NADH2 for 21 ATP
-7 FADH2 for 14 ATP
-8 Acetyl-Coa

158
Q

What is the yield of the kerb’s cycle?

A

-24 NADH2 for 72 ATP
-8 FADH2 for 16 ATP
-8 GTP to ATP

159
Q

What is the total ATP yield from beta oxidation and the kerb’s cycle?

A

-129 ATP
-Not 131 bc 2 ATP used when a fatty acid is activated with CoA

Animal Nutrition (22 decks)

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