issues and debates l1 to 3 redo

Question 1

Gender bias:

Answer 1

Differential treatment of males and females, based on stereotypes rather than real differences

Question 2

Alpha bias:

Answer 2

Studies that exaggerate differences between males and females

Question 3

Beta bias:

Answer 3

Studies that minimise differences between males and females

Question 4

Androcentrism:

Answer 4

Theories centred on males, consciously or unconsciously

Question 5

Universality:

Answer 5

Some behaviours are same for both genders and therefore should be applied to both

Question 6

Which psychologists argued for the existence of two types of bias and what are these?

Answer 6

• Hare-Mustin and Marecek (1988)
• Alpha bias
• Beta bias

Question 7

Examples of alpha bias research:

Answer 7

• Psychodynamic approach –> Freud
• Evolutionary approach

Question 8

How is Freud’s research alpha-biased?

Answer 8

• He argues that since girls have weaker superegos (morally weaker) than boys
• Because they do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, hence they do not identify as strongly with their mother as boys do with their father

Question 9

How is the evolutionary approach alpha-biased?

Answer 9

• Suggests promiscuity in men is normal but abnormal in women
• Evolutionary processes explain why men are more likely to commit adultery, tend to be dominant etc

Question 10

Why is it that beta bias sometimes occurs?

Answer 10

Often, although there are male and female pps, there is no attempt to analyse the data in terms of sex differences

Question 11

Examples of beta bias research:

Answer 11

• Animal research –> Taylor et al (2000)
• Moral development –> Kohlberg
• Zimbardo (1973)

Question 12

How is some animal research beta biased?

Answer 12

• Male animals are often used for research into fight and flight because they have fewer variations in hormones
• Taylor et al (2000) challenged this view by showing that females produce a tend and befriend response

Question 13

How is research into moral development beta biased?

Answer 13

• Kohlberg’s stage theory of development was based on extensive interviews conducted w/ boys [beta bias]
• Gilligan (1982) found women tended to focus more on relationships when making decisions, therefore were at a lower level of reasoning

Question 14

How is Zimbardo (1973) research beta biased?

Answer 14

Only used male students as it was assumed that females would react the same way to prison life

Question 15

Give one example of research that shows anderocentrism:

Answer 15

• Brescoll and Uhlmann (2008)
• Way in which a woman’s behaviour is interpreted eg if they get angry

Question 16

Strengths and weaknesses of gender bias: (+3, -5)

Answer 16

+ Greater understanding of gender bias –> Cornwell et al (2013)
+ Universal
- Often goes unchallenged –> Darwin
- Presented as fixed and enduring –> Maccoby and Jacklin (1974), Joel et al (2015)
- Promotes institutional sexism –> Murphy et al (2014), Rosenthal (1966)
- Works against males and females

Question 17

How is Darwin’s research an example of an unchallenged theory?

Answer 17

• Darwin’s theory suggests that women are selective in terms of mate selection
• Only recently been challenged by DNA evidence suggesting that women are equally as competitive as men when need arises

Question 18

Maccoby and Jacklin (1974):

Answer 18

• Concluded that girls have superior verbal ability wheras boys have better spatial ability
• Suggested that these differences were hardwired into brain before birth, when they may have just been based on stereotypes

Question 19

Joel et al (2015):

Answer 19

• Used brain scanning
• Found no sex differences in brain structure or processing

Question 20

Murphy et al (2014):

Answer 20

• Despite ther being more female undergrads studying psychology, most lecturers tend to be men
• Means that research is likely to be conducted by men, which may disadvanatge females

Question 21

Rosenthal (1966):

Answer 21

Male researchers are more friendly towards female pps

Question 22

How does gender bias sometimes work against males and females?

Answer 22

Alpha bias heightens the value of women, which means that women are more likely to be diagnosed w/ mental disorders, whereas men are often told to ‘pull themselves together’

Question 23

How does gender bias universal?

Answer 23

It shows the similarities and differences between females and males, which means that it can be applied across all people

Question 24

Culture:

Answer 24

Norms, values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour shared by a grp of people

Question 25

Cultural bias:

Answer 25

Tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural norms and values

Question 26

Ethnocentrism:

Answer 26

• Seeing the world from one’s own cultural perespective and believing that this is normal and correct
• May even think it is superior to others

Question 27

Cultural relativism:

Answer 27

Idea that behaviour can only be properly understood in the context of the norms and values of the culture in which it occurs

Question 28

What are the 2 approaches when studying behaviour in different cultures?

Answer 28

• Etic –> Looks at behaviour from outside of a culture and attempts to describe this as universal
• Emic –> Functions from inside a culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture

Question 29

Give two research studies that show ethnocentrism:

Answer 29

• Rack (1984)
• Strange Situation

Question 30

Rack (1984):

Answer 30

Claims that Afro-Caribbeans in Britain are sometimes diagnosed as ‘mentally ill’ on the basis of behaviour that is perfectly normal in their subculture

Question 31

How is the Strange Situation ethnocentric?

Answer 31

• Imposed etic
• Insecure-avoidant and resistant characteristics have negative connotations, whereas this is seen as positive in different cultures
• In Germany independence is valued, which is why there is a higher rate of insecure-avoidant children
• In Japan, interdependence is valued, which is why there is a higher rate of insecure-resistant children

Question 32

Give two examples of research showing cultural relativism:

Answer 32

• Sternberg (1985)
• Buss (1989)

Question 33

Sternberg (1985):

Answer 33

The coordination skills that may be essential to life in a proliferate society may be irrelevant for a more developed society

Question 34

How does Buss (1989) show cultural relativism?

Answer 34

Surveyed 1000 pps from 33 countries to support theory on sexual selection

Question 35

Strengths and weaknesses of cultural bias in psychology: (+4, -1)

Answer 35

+ Due to increased globalisation, the individualistic and collectivist distinction between cultures may not apply –> Takano and Osaka (1999)
+ Emergence of cultural psychology –> Cohen (2017)
+ Techniques used to counter cultural bias
+ Universal –> Berry (1969)
- Many classic studies are culturally biased –> Milgram, Zimbardo

Question 36

Takano and Osaka (1999):

Answer 36

In 14/15 studies looking at Japan and US, collectivist and individualistic distinction did not apply

Question 37

What 2 characteristics does a universal theory have?

Answer 37

• Can be applied to all people
• Must also include real differences

Question 38

Cohen (2017):

Answer 38

• Defines cultural psychology as the study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural experiences

Question 39

How many cultures do cultural psychologists focus on and why?

Answer 39

No more than 2 cultures to avoid being culturally biased

Question 40

What techniques have been developed to avoid cultural bias ?

Answer 40

International psychology conferences to increased exchange of ideas between psychologists to reduce ethnocentrism

Question 41

What did Berry (1969) say about cultural bias that suggests it is universal?

Answer 41

• Suggests it is a derived etic
• Where a series of emic studies take place in local settings, conducted by local researchers using local techniques
• Compared against each other to study cultures

Question 42

What are the 7 ethical implications that a research study can have?

Answer 42

1) Effect on pps
2) Effecton wider public
3) Potential use of findings
4) Potential bias against people of certain cultures
5) Potential influence on moral attitudes towards individuals/grps
6) Economic implications

Question 43

Give 2 examples of studies that had ethical implications and how was it unethical?

Answer 43

• Milgram –> Tried to prove the ‘Germans are different hypothesis’, which leads to assumptions that Germans are bad
• Bowlby –> By suggesting that mothers are the primary care givers and could cause maternal deprivation if they are not present, pressure is put on women, preventing them from going to work

Question 44

Strengths and weaknesses of ethical implications in research studies: (+2,-2)

Answer 44

+ More sensitive research (and Code of Ethics) because of its consideration
+ Cost-benefit analysis can be used to measure ethical implications
- Not possible to see what (each of) the effects of research are and not objective
- Ethical guidelines can be seen as too strict

Question 45

Socially sensitive research and who came up with this definition:

Answer 45

• Sieber and Stanley (1988)
• Studies in which there are potential social implications either directly for the participant/individuals represented leading to prejudice

Question 46

Give 2 examples of socially sensitive research and how they are sensitive:

Answer 46

• Research into homosexual relationships –> Judged on heterosexual norms
• Bowlby –> Makes mothers feel guilty about going to work due to his theory of maternal deprivation

Question 47

Which 3 ethical issues are most important when research is socially sensitive?

Answer 47

• Informed consent
• Psychological harm
• Confidentiality

Question 48

Strengths and weaknesses of socially sensitive research: (+4, -3)

Answer 48

+ Some socially sensitive research is desirable and beneficial to society –> Flin et al
+ Taking a more reflexive approach (Sieber and Stanley)
+ Cost-benefit analysis could be used
+ Mechanisms to safeguard those who are implicated in research eg reflexive approach
- Leads to discrimination
- Some psychologists suggest we should just avoid conducting research on these topics –> Scarr (1988)

Question 49

Flin et al:

Answer 49

Found that young children can be reliable witnesses if questioned in a timely and appropriate manner

Question 50

Give one example showing how socially sensitive research leads to racial discrimination:

Answer 50

• Research examining racial differences in IQ have been used to justify new forms of social control
• 1972 –> United States Senate Committee revealed at least 2000 involuntary sterilisations on black women without their consent

Question 51

How do Sieber and Stanley argue that taking a reflexive approach can help dealing with socially sensitive research?

Answer 51

If psychologists reflect on how their own personal beliefs affect the research process, this can be dealt with

Question 52

What did Scarr (1988) say about avoiding socially sensitive research?

Answer 52

Science is in desperate need of good studies that highlight race and gender variables