Approaches L5 - 10 Flashcards
What do cognitive psychologists often investigate, how and why is this used?
- Internal mental processes
- Using inferences
- Direct observation of cognitive processes is not possible + behaviour is influenced by thoughts
Inference:
Cognitive model might make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed, going beyond immediate research evidence
Key feature of cognitive approach:
Focuses on attention, memory and how people perceive, store, manipulate and interpret info
What is the brain described as in this approach and why?
- Information processing model
- Input (senses encoding info), processing (info processed via schemas), output (behavioural response)
What mental processes does the cognitive approach?
1) Attention
2) Thinking
3) Store info in memory
4) Retrieve info
Schemas:
- Packets of cognitive frameworks that are developed through experience and expectations about how we should behave
- Act as a shortcut to help organise and interpret vast amounts of info
- Cause exclusion if anything that does not conform
2 types of schemas and what they are:
1) Role schema –> Schema about behaviour expected from someone in particular role
2) Event schema –> Schema about what to expect from an event
Evaluation of cognitive approach: (+3, -3)
+ Many applications in different areas of psychology eg.cognitive psych with negative schema
+ Objective and scientific –> emphasise lab experiments
+ Huge influence on development of cognitive neuroscience (influence of brain structures on mental processes)
- Heavy on internal mental processes often ignored by other models eg. biological approach
- Does not give full picture of what is going on in the brain –> only an inference
- Soft determinism
What is soft determinism and why is this a weakness of cognitive approach?
- Behaviour is constrained by environment or biology
- Cognitive approach does not consider biology, which may have a big impact
What study was conducted about the role of schemas?
Bartlett (1932)
Procedure of Bartlett (1932) study:
Lab setting:
1) English pps asked to read Native American folk tale called ‘The war of the Ghosts’ (unfamiliar story from diff culture)
2) Read story and recall it after different lengths of time
Results of Bartlett (1932) study:
–> All English pps reconstructed story to recall it better:
- Included elements of English culture
- ‘ghosts’ detail left out
- Order of story changed to be more logical
- ‘Canoes’ changed to ‘cars’
- ‘Bows’ changed to ‘guns’
–> Pps remembered less info as more time passed between reading and recalling story
Conclusion of Bartlett (1932) study:
- People use their own schemas to help interpret and remember info, which is dependent on culture to an extent
- Schemas are important when studying internal mental processes
Evaluation of ‘The War of the Ghosts’: (+2, -2)
+ Highly reliable –> lab study
+ Confirms importance of schema theory when investigating internal mental cognitive processes
- Lacks ecological validity –> demand characteristics
- Biased sample –> only English pps, no one from other cultures
When did cognitive neuroscience emerge, who first used the term and why was it needed?
- 1971
- Miller (1991) used it to bridge gap between cognitive science and neuroscience
Cognitive neuroscience:
Scientific study of influence of brain structure on mental processes
Give some examples of technology used to study the brain and what they entail:
- fMRI –> magnetic, measures small changes in blood flow in brain
- PET –> uses radiation, how functions are operating in 3D
Evaluation of information processing model and emergence of cognitive neuroscience: (+3, -2)
+ Dominant in psych eg. helped develop AI
+ Founded on soft determinism –> recognises that humans re free to think before responding to stimuli
+ Cause and effect can be established –> focuses on theoretical computer models and lab experiments
- Reductionist –> oversimplifies behaviour with no role of emotion
- Inaccurate to compare computers to humans
Aim and Procedure of Maguire (2000) study:
Aim: Investigate whether brain is susceptible to plastic changes in response to environmental stimulation
1) Undergo extensive training (The Knowledge) and make ideal grp for study of spatial recognition
2) 32 healthy males (avg age 44) split into 2 grps: one was 16 licensed male London taxi drivers (working for at least 18 months) and second were 16 in control grp who’d never driven taxis before
3) MRI scans taken
Results of Maguire (2000) study:
Right posterior hippocampus (responsible for storing visual representations of environment) was larger in first grp than second –> related to time driver had been in job
Evaluation of Maguire (2000) study: (+2, -1)
+ Supports key aspects of cognitive neuroscience
+ Research evidence supports fact that right posterior hippocampus is involved in spatial awareness from previous rodent and monkey studies
- Lacks pop validity –> only investigated males
Genetics:
Extent to which a psychological characteristic is determined by genes or the environment
How many chromosomes does each person have and what is each one made up of?
- 23 pairs
- Made if DNA, consisting of genes
Genotype:
Genetic code in our DNA inherited from biological parents
Phenotype:
The characteristic of an individual is determined by the expression of physical, behavioural and psychological traits
How does studying twin studies give further research on the effect of genetics?
Use of concordance rates
Evaluation of genetics: (+3, -2)
+ Helps to locate genes on chromosomes
+ Uses twin studies –> useful as concordance rates can be examined to relate to behaviour
+ People can be screened to check if they are carrying genes for specific illness
- Reductionist –> reduces complex behaviour like IQ into just small components like genes
- Ignored other models eg cognitive, where someone who develops depression may not carry the gene but rather have faulty cognitions
What study investigated the role of genes in developing schizophrenia and between what period?
Gottensman and Shields between 1933 and 1948
Features of Gottesman and Shields:
1) 224 sets of twins on Maudley twin register (106 were MZ, 118 were DZ). 120 males and 104 females
2) Avg age was 46 w/ variety of ethnic backgrounds
3) London hospital
4) Longitudinal study
5) Relied on fact that one twin already had schizophrenia and concordance rates investigated to see chances of other twin becoming schizophrenic
6) Used in-depth interviews, doctors case notes and DSM
Results and conclusion of Gottesman and Shields:
- 48% of MZ concordant for schizophrenia
- 17% of DZ concordant for schizophrenia
Chances of developing schizophrenia are higher for MZ twins
Evaluation of Gottesman and Shields: (+2, -2)
+ Longitudinal
+ Supports biological approach
- Ignores behavioural approach, as one twin could’ve copied the behaviour of the other
- Relied on interviews –> some have difficulty w/ communication
Natural selection process:
1) Genetic makeup of an individual can undergo a random mutation
2) Leads to characteristic change in future gens of offspring
3) Chances of survival and reproduction are greater, so gene is passed on and is adaptive
How do physical characteristics vary?
Partly due to genetics and factors in environment
Evaluation of evolutionary approach: (+3, -1)
+ Supported by nature and nurture debate
+ Heavily supported by Charles Darwin’s work and survival of fittest
+ Maximise chances of healthy offspring as they will compete each other by seeking the best mate
- Does not consider behavioural and cognitive explanations –> no free will against competition
What key research study was conducted on sexual selection?
- Buss (1989)
Aim and procedure of Buss (1989):
Aim: Investigate what males and females looked for in long term partner
1) 10,000 pps across 37 cultures
2) Rate 18 characteristics using 4 point scale (1 was worst, 4 was best)
Findings of Buss (1989):
- Females desired males with good financial prospects, resources and ambition
- Males desired females w/ reproductive value and those who were youthful and younger than them
Evaluation of Buss (1989): (+1, -2)
+ Cross cultural validity
- Does not consider social and cultural perspectives that may affect partner choice eg Western cultures value slim body shape, whereas some Eastern cultures prefer larger body shapes
- Lacks temporal validity
Which researcher said that Buss (1989) lacks temporal validity and why?
- Buller (2005)
- Most women today are independent and have their own resources hence do not rely on a mate
2 main biological structures:
1) Nervous system
2) Brain
What 2 sub-systems does the nervous system consist of and it’s features?
- Central Nervous System –> brain and spinal cord, controls breathing and heart rate
- Peripheral Nervous System –> sends and receives messages from CNS to other parts of body
What are the four lobes of the brain and what is the function of each?
- Parietal –> dealing with and reacting to environment
- Frontal –> emotional control like personality
- Temporal –> language and memory
- Occipital –> important for vision
Evaluation of biological structures: (+1, -3)
+ Relies on use of scans, which is most scientific
- Explains some but not all behaviours eg phobias are usually learnt
- Cause and effect cannot be established
- Psychologists still don’t have full knowledge of brain and its functions
For what reasons might schizophrenia develop and what usually used to investigate this?
- Structural and functional brain abnormalities
- Post mortems in the past, fMRIs now
Which study examined neural correlate changes in schizophrenic patients?
Swayze
How many schizophrenic patients were examined and what was used to test them?
50 schizophrenic patients examined using MRI
What structural abnormalities were found?
- Decrease in brain weight
- Enlarged ventricles filled with water
- Smaller hypothalamus
- Less grey matter (intelligence is held here)
- Abnormalities in pre frontal cortex (personality is held)
Evaluation of Swayze (+1, -3)
+ Strong supporting evidence that schizophrenia is caused by neural correlate changes in pre-natal development
- Does not explain schizophrenia in adulthood
- Conflicting research evidence
- Cause and effect is not established
What are the two pieces of conflicting research evidence?
1) Andreason (1982) found extent to which ventricles are enlarged is not that significant, therefore there is very little difference between normal and schizophrenic brain
2) Davison and Neale (2001) showed sufferers of mania also have enlarged ventricles, so it could be a vulnerability factor that increases risk instead of the cause
Neurotransmitter:
Chemical messengers that communicate via cerebral fluid
Evaluation of neurochemistry:
+ Can be measured objectively eg. injection of dopamine
+ Knowledge that lack/excess of neurotransmitter has an effect on behaviour
- Cause and effect needs to be established
- Reductionist as complex human behaviour involves more than this
- Criticised by cognitive approach –> it would say behaviour is caused by thought patterns
Dopamine hypothesis procedure, results and who did it:
Davis and Neale:
1) Drugs like phenothiazines are given to patients that block dopamine in brain, which reduced hallucinations and delusions (positive symptoms) of schizophrenia
2) L-Dopa, LSD, amphetamines increases dopamine levels, which were tested on healthy, non-psychotic people
3) Dopamine metabolism seems to be abnormal
Evaluation of dopamine hypothesis:
+ Research support to suggest they have high level of dopamine –> Davidson found when L-Dopa was given, schizophrenic symptoms intensified
+ Brain scanning evidence (PET and fMRI) show dopamine is cause
- Cause and effect is unclear
- Dopamine has been associated with other illnesses as well like mania
- Reductionist
3 key assumptions of psychodynamic approach:
1) Driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind
2) Instinct and drives motivate our behaviour
3) Early childhood is pivotal in making us the person we are
How many levels does Freud believe there are to the mind and what are each?
- 3
- Conscious –> thoughts, feelings and memories a person is currently aware of
- Preconscious –> thoughts, feelings and memories a person could access if they wanted to
- Unconscious –> thoughts, feelings and memories a person is unaware of
What is the largest and inaccessible part of the mind?
Unconscious mind
What does Freud believe most of our everyday actions and behaviours are a product of?
Product of unconscious mind
How does the unconscious mind reveal itself?
- Freudian slips (slip of tongue)
- Neurotic symptoms
- Creativity
What does the unconscious mind protect us from?
Anxiety, fear, trauma, conflict
What 2 aspects drive our behaviour?
1) Traumatic, repressed memories
2) Unconscious sexual drive
What happens if a conflict is experienced during the development through the psychosexual stages?
A fixation can affect an adult’s personality
What happens during psychoanalysis?
Psychoanalyst tries to access unconscious mind of their patients using free association and dream interpretation
Free association:
Mental process by which one word or image may spontaneously suggest another without any necessary logical connection
What is the structure of personality and what are each of these?
- Tripartite
- Id, ego and superego
What 2 aspects shape the development of the 3 parts of personality?
- Experience
- Conflicts in childhood
Features of id:
- Formed between birth and 18 months
- Found in unconscious mind
- Focuses on self and is irrational
- Operates on pleasure principle
Features of ego:
- Formed from 18 months to 3 years
- Found in conscious mind
- Rational and obtains balance between id and superego
- Operates on principle of reality
Features of superego:
- Formed between 3 and 6 years
- Found in unconscious mind
- Acts as conscience based on parental and societal values
- Operates on principle of morality
Function of defence mechanisms:
May stop an individual from becoming consciously aware of any unpleasant thoughts/feelings that they may be experiencing
3 types of defence mechanisms:
1) Repression
2) Denial
3) Displacement
Repression:
Unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts that may continue to influence behaviour
Denial:
Refusal to accept reality to avoid having to deal w/ painful feelings that may be associated w/ traumatic situation
Displacement:
This occurs when focus of strong emotion is expressed on an alternative person/object
How many stages did Freud believe personality developed through and what are they referred to as?
- 5
- Psychosexual stages
5 psychosexual stages and ages:
1) Oral (0 - 1)
2) Anal (1 - 3)
3) Phallic (3 - 5)
4) Latent (6 - 12)
5) Genital (12+)
Oral stage:
Focus of pleasure is the mouth and control of sucking, tasting and biting
Anal stage:
- Focus of pleasure is anus
- Child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
Phallic stage:
- Focus of pleasure is genital area
- Experiences Oedipus or Electra complex
Latent stage:
- Focus is mastery of world and social relationships
- Earlier consequences are repressed/resolved and early yrs are forgotten
Genital stage:
Sexual desires become conscious alongside onset of puberty
Consequences of resolving/not resolving earlier conflicts in oral stage:
Resolved: Trusting and able to give/receive affection
Unresolved: Oral fixation eg smoking, biting nails
Consequences of resolving/not resolving earlier conflicts in anal stage:
Resolved: Can deal w/ authority figs
Unresolved: Anal retentive personality (perfectionist and obsessive) or anal expulsive personality (thoughtful and messy)
Consequences of resolving/not resolving earlier conflicts in phallic stage:
Resolved: Adopts the behaviours of same sex
Unresolved: Narcissistic, reckless and possibly homo
Consequences of resolving/not resolving earlier conflicts in genital stage:
Resolved: Individual is a well-adjusted adult
Unresolved: Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
What does Freud believe about parents’ role in child’s progression through psychosexual stage
Play an important role
What happens if a child is allowed to experience too much/little gratification at any of stages?
Process called fixation can occur where child’s later adult personality could show permanent signs reflecting stage at which it happened
Oedipus complex (during phallic stage)
- During phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and hatred for rival in life, which is their father
- Out of castration anxiety by father, boys repress feelings for mother and identify w/ father
- Internalise his gender roles and moral values (his superego)
Electra complex (during phallic stage):
- Girls experience penis envy and so desire their father
- They believe they have been castrated and blame mother for this
- Over time, girls give up desire for father for desire for a baby
- Identify w/ mother and internalise gender role and moral values (her superego)
Strengths and weaknesses of psychodynamic approach:
+ Led to development of psychoanalysis (therapy for treatment of anxiety disorders)
+ Research support –> case study of Little Hans
+ Key concepts lack falsifiability as they are unconscious and difficult to test
+ Use of evidence to support effectiveness of psychotherapy –> De Maat et al
3 key assumptions of humanistic approach:
- Should study the whole person
- People have free will
- Scientific method is too objective and fails to acknowledge subjective experience of individual
Features of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
- Most basic physiological needs are represented at bottom of pyramid and most advanced needs at top
- Each level just be fulfilled before a person can move up to higher need
- More basic the need, more powerfully it is experienced and more difficult it is to ignore
Self-actualisation:
When a person reached their full potential and is best versions of themselves
What 3 characteristics did Maslow find between most of those who attained self-actualisation and how do they experience self-actualisation?
Characteristics:
- Creative
- Accepting of others
- Accurate world perception
Experience it through peak experiences (moments of extreme inspiration and ecstasy)
What does Rogers say about humanistic approach?
- Focuses on self and self-acceptance
- People have 2 basic needs: positive regard and feelings of self-worth
- Positive regard may be unconditional or conditional
- Feelings of self-worth develop in childhood as a result of child’s interactions w/ parent and interactions w/ significant others
What do people who experience conditional positive regard develop, what is this and when do they experience self-acceptance?
- Conditions of worth
- Conditions which they believe have to be met if they are to be accepted by others
- Only experience sense of self-acceptance if they meet these expectations
What happens as a result of poor conditions of worth?
Psychological issues
Congruence:
Similarity between a persons’ perceived self and their ideal self
Incongruence:
Difference between perceived self and ideal self
What is it rare to experience and what do most people go through?
- Complete state of congruence
- Some degree of incongruence
What did Roger (1959) claim about counselling psychology?
- Psychological problems are direct result of conditional positive regard they receive from others
- Can solve own problems in constructive ways w/ counselling
- Humanistic psychologists act as guides, finding ways to enable their potential for self-actualisation
How do therapists work?
- Provide unconditional positive regard
- Dissolve client’s conditions of worth
Strengths and weaknesses of humanistic approach:
+ Research support for conditions of worth –> Harter et al
+ Focus on personal growth –> allows them to live more fulfilling, meaningful life
- Free will –> science believes all behaviour is caused by smth
- Reductionism –> lacks scientific rigour
- Includes concepts that are not operationalised like self-actualisation
- Associated w/ individualist cultures –> fits w/ individual goals
What study gives supporting evidence about role of conditions of worth and what does it say?
- Harter et al
- Teenagers felt they had to fulfil conditions of worth to gain parents’ approval end up disliking themselves and are more likely to develop depression
