Relationships L9 - 11

Question 1

What is the prominent difference between face to face and virtual relationships and why does this exist?

Answer 1

• Self-disclosure tends to occur much faster
• Less of a risk that info will be leaked to mutual friends
• Less risk of fear of ridicule/rejection

Question 2

What analogy is self-disclosure in virtual relationships?

Answer 2

Strangers on a train

Question 3

Rubin (1975):

Answer 3

• Series of studies where confederates disclosed personal info about themselves to strangers on trains, airport lounges or standing at bus stops
• Found they disclosed intimate details to a stranger next to them , which was often reciprocal

Question 4

2 major theories explaining virtual relationship:

Answer 4

1) Reduced cues
2) Hyperpersonal model

Question 5

Who proposed the hyperpersonal model and what is it?

Answer 5

• Walther (1996, 2011)
• Can be more intimate than face to face relationships due to earlier self-disclosure

Question 6

2 features of hyperpersonal model:

Answer 6

1) Selective self-presentation –> Sender has greater control over what they disclose and the cues compared to face to face. This means relationships can be either hyper honest/hyperdishonest
2) Receiver gains positive impression and feedback of sender, which reinforces selective self-presentation

Question 7

What did Bargh et al (2002) point out about the outcome of greater self-disclosure?

Answer 7

When anonymous, one feels less accountable for their behaviour so there appears to be no consequences for greater self-disclosure

Question 8

Who came up with reduced cues theory?

Answer 8

Sprout and Kiesler (1986)

Question 9

What is reduced cues theory?

Answer 9

• Virtual relationships are less effective than face to face
• They lack many of the cues we depend on in FTF interactions eg NVR cues
• This leads to deindividuation (loss of one’s identity), which leads to disinhibition (feeling freer to communicate bluntly and are less likely to share their real thoughts

Question 10

What is a gate and who came up with this definition?

Answer 10

• Any obstacle to forming a relationship
• Face to face interactions are gated by things like age, ethnicity

Question 11

How is gating different in virtual relationships?

Answer 11

Absence of gating allows for greater opportunities for less attractive and shy people to develop a relationship

Question 12

Strengths and weaknesses of virtual relationships: (+2, -4)

Answer 12

+ Type of self-disclosures used differ in FTF and virtual relationships –> Whitty and Joinson (2000)
+ Research support –> McKenna and Bargh (2000) and Kirdpatrick and Davis (1994)
- NVR cues may be different rather than totally absent –> Walther and Tidwell (1995)
- Lack of support for hyperpersonal model –> Rupel et al (2017)
- Based on mainly Western, technologically developed countries –> Nakanishi (1986)
- Gender differences –> McKenna et al (2002)

Question 13

What did Whitty and Joinson (2009) do to support the hyperpersonal model?

Answer 13

Summarised evidence showing how self-presentation is manipulated in virtual relationships (hyperhonesty)

Question 14

How does McKenna and Bargh (2000) support virtual relationships?

Answer 14

Saw that shy, lonely and socially anxious people found it easier to express their true selves more online than FTF

Question 15

What did Kirdpatrick and Davis show about online relationships by shy people?

Answer 15

• 71% of relationships formed online lasted at least 2 yrs
• In real world, only 49% of these survive

Question 16

What did Walther and Tidwell show about the difference in cues?

Answer 16

• People in online interactions use other cues like style and message timing
• Acronyms and emojis are not considered as a form of expression

Question 17

How does the meta-analysis conducted by Rupel et al (2017) show a lack of support for hyperpersonal model?

Answer 17

• Meta-analysis of 25 studies
• Self-report studies showed frequency, breadth and depth of self-disclosure was all greater in FTF relationships
• Experimental research showed no significant differences in FTF and virtual relationships

Question 18

How are different attitudes to self-disclosure shown by Nakanishi (1986)?

Answer 18

In contrast to American culture, women in Japan preferred lower levels of self-disclosure due to cultural norms

Question 19

In what other ways do virtual relationships lack cultural validity?

Answer 19

Some countries do not have internet tech readily available to them

Question 20

What gender differences did McKenna et al (2002) identify>

Answer 20

• Women tended to rate their relationships as more intimate and valued self-disclosure
• Men valued activities-based self-disclosure and hence rated online relationships as less close than face-to-face ones
• Suggests research may show alpha-bias

Question 21

Parasocial relationship:

Answer 21

One sided unreciprocated relationship usuall6 with a celebrity where a person spends a lot of emotional energy, time and commitment

Question 22

Who developed the celebrity attitudes scale (CAS)?

Answer 22

McCutcheon et al (2002)

Question 23

Who used a large-scale survey to develop the 3 levels of a para social relationship?

Answer 23

Maltby et al (2006)

Question 24

What are the 3 levels of a parasocial relationship?

Answer 24

1) Entertainment Social (Giles and Maltby)
2) Intense Personal
3) Borderline pathological

Question 25

Entertainment social phase:

Answer 25

• Least intense
• Source of entertainment and topic of light-hearted gossip
• Most people engage in this

Question 26

Intense personal:

Answer 26

• More intense
• Taking an interest in celebrity’s personal life - Typical of teenagers

Question 27

Borderline pathological:

Answer 27

• Most intense
• Takes celebrity worship to an extreme eg obsessive fantasies, spending large sums of money
• People believe this person would reciprocate if they met in real life

Question 28

2 theories explaining parasocial relationships:

Answer 28

• Absorption addiction model
• Attachment theory

Question 29

Who propised the absorption-addiction model and what did she suggest?

Answer 29

• McCutcheon (2002)
• People engage in celebrity worship to compensate for deficiencies in life
• Allows them to achieve fulfilment and adds purpose
• Achieving fulfilment motivates intense attachment to celebrity (absorption)
• Individual needs to increase dose to gain satisfaction, which leads to more delusional thinking (addiction)

Question 30

Strengths and weaknesses of absorption-addiction model:

Answer 30

+ Research support –> McCutcheon et al (2016), Maltby et al (2005), Schiappa et al (2007), Greenwood and Long (2009)
+ Useful applications –> Maltby (2003)
+ Universally applicable
- Conflicting research evidence –> Chory-Assad and Yanen (2005)
- Nomothetic

Question 31

How does attachment theory link to parasocial relationships?

Answer 31

Ainsworth suggested individuals who formed insecure-resistant relationships w/ caregiver in early childhood would be more likely to form parasocial relationships

Question 32

Strengths and weaknesses of attachment theory as an explanation for parasocial relationships:

Answer 32

+ Research support –> Kienlen et al (1997), Cole and Leets (1999)
+ Explains why people all over world have a desire to form parasocial relationships –> Dinkha et al (2015)
- Conflicting research evidence –> McCutcheon et al (2006)
- Correlational not causational

Question 33

Kienlen et al (1997):

Answer 33

• Supports
• Investigated experiences of stalkers
• Found 63% of pps experienced loss of caregiver in early childhood
• 50% experienced emotional and physical abuse

Question 34

Cole and Leets (1999):

Answer 34

• Investigated parasocial relationships adolescents developed with TV personalities
• Teenagers with insecure-resistant attachment types were more likely to develop this

Question 35

How does Dinkha et al (2015) show cross-cultural validity?

Answer 35

• Compared 2 contrasting cultures –> Kuwait and UK
• Found people with insecure attachment in both cultures were more likely to form an intense parasocial relationship

Question 36

How does McCutcheon et al (2006) show conflicting evidence?

Answer 36

• Examined correlation between attachment type and celebrity worship levels using 229 pps
• No link between insecure-resistant attachment and more intense parasocial relationships

Question 37

How did McCutcheon et al (2004) show correlational evidence?

Answer 37

• Low levels of education are associated with high levels of parasocial relationships
• Attachment theory is not conclusive in explaining parasocial relationships