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Psychology > Research Methods AS L5 - 8 > Flashcards

Research Methods AS L5 - 8 Flashcards

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1
Q

3 steps of conducting research:

A

1) Deciding an aim
2) Decide IV and DV + operationalise
3) Decide a hypothesis + operationalise

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2
Q

Aim:

A

Precise statement about purpose of study + what it intends to find out

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3
Q

Hypothesis:

A

Precise, testable statement about expected outcome of investigation

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4
Q

Null hypothesis:

A

IV will have no effect on DV

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5
Q

Alternative/Experimental Hypothesis:

A

IV will have an effect on DV

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6
Q

Non-directional hypothesis (two-tailed):

A

Direction of predicted differences between conditions not shown eg. eating chocolate will significantly affect a person’s mood

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7
Q

Directional hypothesis (one-tailed):

A

Direction of the predicted difference between condition is shown eg. eating chocolate will increase a person’s mood

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8
Q

Target population:

A

The group who researchers are studying and want to generalise their results to

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9
Q

Why are sampling techniques used?

A

Obtain a sample of target population to avoid studying entire populations, as it is too long and expensive

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10
Q

What should a sample aim to be like?

A
  • Representative of population
  • Same characteristic as population
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11
Q

Random sampling:

A
  • Every member of target population has an equal chance of being selected
  • Use a bias-free method to select a sample
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12
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of random sampling:

A

+ If target population is large and sample is large, sample is likely to be representative
+ No researcher bias as sample has been chosen by chance
- Difficult to get full details of target population
- Not all members of target pop will be willing to participate/be available, making sample unreliable and reducing the sample size

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13
Q

Systematic sampling:

A

Participants are selected by taking every nth person from a list of the total pop

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14
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of systematic sampling:

A

+ Much simpler than random sampling as it only requires a list of target pop
- Process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within pop due to coincidence
- Not all members of target pop will be willing to participate/be available, making sample unreliable and reducing the sample size

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15
Q

Stratified sampling:

A
  • Classifying pop into categories and randomly choosing a sample that consists of participants from each category in the same proportion as they are in the pop
  • Divided into strata in terms of characteristics
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16
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of stratified sampling:

A

+ All grps within pop are included, therefore it is representative
- Time-consuming
- Hard if you do not have details of everyone in stratified sample

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17
Q

Opportunity sampling (Convenience sampling):

A
  • Selecting participants who are readily available and willing to participate
  • Possibly easy access to a group of people they know well
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18
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of opportunity sampling:

A

+ Easiest and most practical method for large samples in comparison to stratified sampling
- High chance sample will not be representative
- Sometimes people feel obliged to participate in research (especially if researcher is known to them), which is possibly unethical

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19
Q

Volunteer sampling:

A
  • Volunteering to participate in a study
  • Researcher usually advertises for people to participate thru leaflets, posters, radio or TV broadcasts
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20
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of volunteer sampling:

A

+ Time and effort is saved as the researcher only needs to wait for pps
- Certain type of person tends to volunteer eg. Someone who is interested about the topic therefore it is possible the sample is unrepresentative

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21
Q

In a pilot study, what is it important to check when using self-report measures?

A
  • Understanding of questions
  • Closed questions still offered suitable options
  • Whether open questions are needed to elicit unpredictable responses
  • Appropriateness of reporting methods
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22
Q

In a pilot study, what is it important to check when using observations?

A
  • Operationalised definitions of behavioural categories are agreeed by observers
  • Inter-observer reliability (do researchers need to practise observing behaviours?)
  • That behavioural categories include all important behaviours
  • Behavioural categories don’t overlap
  • Whether pps are affected by observers (should it be covert?)
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23
Q

Which two effects should be checked in a pilot study?

A
  • Floor effect = None of the pps can complete the task as it is too hard
  • Ceiling effect = Task is so easy pps can virtually achieve full marks
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24
Q

Experimental designs:

A
  • How pps are organised w/in the experiment
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25
Q

3 types of experimental designs:

A

1) Independent grps
2) Repeated measures
3) Matched pairs

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26
Q

2 different conditions psychologist may want to compare (+ meanings):

A

1) Experimental condition –> grp of ppl are exposed to IV
2) Control condition –> grp received no treatment + are used as baseline level to compare results

27
Q

3 types of controls:

A
  • Randomisation
  • Standardisation
  • Random allocation
28
Q

Randomisation:

A
  • Use of chance to control effects of bias when deciding order of conditions
  • Put in random order by computer/manually
  • Especially important using repeated measures design and same pps taking part in diff conditions
29
Q

Standardisation:

A

Using same formalised procedures and instructions for all pps in study, which improves reliability

30
Q

Random allocation:

A

Attempt to control for pp variables (individual differences) in an independent groups design

31
Q

Pilot study:

A
  • Preliminary small scale investigation of procedures to be used in main study
  • Involves selecting a few people and trying our study on them
32
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of pilot study:

A

+ Time and money can be saved by identifying flaws in procedure early on
+ Can help spot ambiguities/confusion/practical issues/suitability
- Time-consuming
- May not be beneficial overall as not all EV can be eliminated regardless

33
Q

Independent groups design:

A
  • Different pps used in each of the conditions
  • Each grp of pps are independent from one another
  • Pps randomly allocated to balance out individual differences
34
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of independent groups design:

A

+ Order effects will not occur as there are different pps in each condition (pps may get tired/bored)
+ Chance of demand characteristics reduced as pps take part in only one condition each
+ Pps not lost between conditions as pps take part in only one condition each compared to repeated measures design where they take part in 2
- More pps needed for this design
- Different results gained could be due to individual differences rather than manipulation of IV

35
Q

Repeated measures design:

A

Each pp is tested in all conditions of experiment eg. tested today to see effect of chocolate on mood, tested next week as well

36
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of repeated measures design:

A

+ No individual differences between conditions as same pps are used
+ Half pps needed compared to an independent groups design
- Order effect may affect results
- Demand characteristics more likely as pps are involved in entire study + both conditions

37
Q

Matched pairs design:

A
  • Diff pps used in all of conditions
  • Pps in 2 grps measured on characteristics important for study eg. condition one: male aged 45, condition two: male aged 45
  • Identical twins used often
38
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of matched pairs design:

A

+ Less risk of order effect as pps only take part in one condition
+ Individual differences are less likely to occur as grps have been closely matched on specific characteristics
- Matching process incredibly difficult and time-consuming as twice as many pps required
- Even 2 closely matched individuals have diff levels of motivation and fatigue

39
Q

Order effect:

A

Sequence in which pps take part in conditions influence their performance/behaviour

40
Q

One way to avoid order effect:

A

Counterbalancing:
- Half pps do Condition A first then Condition B
- Other half do Condition B first then Condition A

41
Q

Ecological validity:

A

Ability to generalise findings of piece of research to other settings

42
Q

Validity:

A

Study is measuring what intends to measure when referring to aim of study

43
Q

4 types of validity:

A
  • Ecological
  • Participant
  • Temporal
  • Internal
44
Q

Participant validity:

A

Results from pps of study can be generalised to target pop

45
Q

Temporal validity:

A

Results of study can be generalised to people in today’s contemporary society

46
Q

Internal validity:

A

Results of study is a direct result of manipulation of IV upon DV and has been unaffected by EV

47
Q

Reliability:

A

Consistency of a research study

48
Q

What method is used to assess external reliability, what is this and what outcome shows external reliability?

A
  • Test-retest method
  • Research study is conducted once and then conducted again
  • If results are same, the study has external reliability
49
Q

Internal reliability:

A

Whether test and results gained are consistent within itself

50
Q

External reliability:

A

Whether test and results gained are consistent over time

51
Q

What method is used to assess internal reliability, what is this and what outcome shows internal reliability?

A
  • Split-half technique
  • Questionnaire split in half and pps complete both halves
  • If scores are similar on both halves, it has internal reliability
52
Q

What needs to be well controlled to ensure a study has internal reliability?

A

Extraneous variables

53
Q

3 categories of extraneous variables:

A
  • Participant variables
  • Situational variables
  • Experimenter variables
54
Q

Participant variables:

A

Characteristics of pps that may affect DV eg. age, personality

55
Q

Which designs can help avoid participant variables and how must they be altered to avoid other issues?

A
  • Matched pairs + Repeated measures design
  • Repeated measures w/ counterbalancing to avoid order effects + random allocation to avoid biased grps
56
Q

Situational variables:

A

Factors in environment where experiment is conducted that could affect DV eg. temperature, time of day

57
Q

How can the issue of situational and experimenter variables be resolved?

A

Standardisation

58
Q

Experimenter variables:

A

Factors to do with experimenter which can affect DV eg. personality, appearance

59
Q

Investigator effects:

A
  • Investigator inadvertently influences research results due to certain physical characteristics eg. age, gender
  • If investigator knows hypothesis, they may be biased when interpreting results
60
Q

Types of investigator effects:

A
  • Observer bias
  • Interviewer effects
61
Q

How can the issue of investigator effects be resolved?

A

Double blind technique = Neither pps nor investigator knows aim of study

62
Q

Demand characteristics:

A

When features of research studies enable pps to guess aim of research and hence, they act unnaturally out of nervousness (try to annoy by giving incorrect answers) /social desirability (try to please by giving expected answers)

63
Q

How can the issue of demand characteristics be resolved and what experimental design is this hard to accomplish in?

A
  • Single blind technique = Only pps do not know the aim of study
  • More difficult to do in repeated measures design

Psychology (25 decks)

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