Human Health And Physiology - 2 Flashcards
What are the advantages and disadvantages of dialysis?
+ patient kept alive while waiting for transplant
+ suitable for patients with abdominal scars and wounds who cannot have peritoneal dialysis
- visits to hospitals
- holidays restricted to those with dialysis machines
- 35000 per year
- infection from equipment availability of machines
- dietary restrictions
What are the advantages and disadvantages of peritoneal dialysis?
\+ patients kept alive while waiting for transplant \+ donor at home \+ only bags of fluid while traveling \+ diet less restricted - strict hygienic conditions - 175000 per year - regular monitoring - not suitable for people with abdominal wounds or scars
What is the method of dialysis?
- In a machine blood and dialysis fluid are separated by a partially permeable membrane
- Urea and waste substances diffuse from the blood into the fluid
- The blood and fluid have equal concentrations so useful substances remain in the blood
- Excess water leaves the blood by osmosis
How does peritoneal dialysis work?
In the abdomen the peritoneal membrane lies around the intestine ms and is used as the partially permeable membrane. The dialysis fluid is inserted into the abdominal cavity and waste materials diffuse our of the blood through the peritoneal membrane and into the cavity then the fluid plus waste is drained away
How is urea produced?
Its produced in the liver from the breakdown of surplus amino acids
What does the liver do?
Produce urea
What does the renal artery do?
Brings blood containing urea and other substances to the kidney
What does the renal vein do?
It carries blood away from the kidney after urea and other substances have been removed from the kidney
What is the urethra?
The tube through which urine passes to the outside of your body
What is the ureter?
The tube through which urine passes from the kidney to the bladder
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a kidney transplant?
\+ no dependency on machines \+ less restricted diet \+ long term cost is less - immunosuppressant drugs due to risk of rejection - 17000 per person - check ups - donor availability
What are the functions of the human skeleton?
Gives shape to the body
Supports the body
Protects and supports soft organs
Acts as an attachment point for muscles that enable us to move
In long bones bone marrow produces red and white blood cells
What does a bone contain?
Living cells which make hard bone, therefore new bone can be made when old bone is reabsorbed or the bone is damaged
What are the types of bone in the back?
7 cervical vertebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae
5 lumbar vertebrae
Invertebral discs
What are the names of the bone in the leg?
Femur
Knee cap
Fibula
Tibia
What are the names of the bones in the arm?
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Hand bones
Name the bones in the thorax?
Skull Jaw bone Collar bone Shoulder blade Breast bone Ribcage Back bone Hip
What is the synovial joint?
It allows bones to move easily e.g knee and shoulder
What does the ligaments do?
These are strong bonds of connective tissue that hold bones together they are slightly elastic
What does the cartilage do?
Covers the end of bones, they are smooth to reduce friction and act as a shock absorber
What does the synovial fluid do?
It reduces friction by lubricating the joint
What do the discs of cartilage do?
They cushion the vertebrae and act as shock absorbers when you jump around
What do the tendons do?
Attach muscle to bone
Describe how the antagonistic pairs work
One of the muscles (the flexor) contracts and stimulates a bending action, in order to straighten the bone the other muscle (the extensor) must contract and pull the bone back
What is muscle tone?
The amount of tension in the muscles, without it you would not be able to stand up straight and you will be a fish
What is a physiotherapist?
Someone who assess and treats people whose movement is restricted
How do physiotherapist treat people?
Exercise Deep heat Hydrotherapy Massage Ultrasound
What is a chiropractor and a osteopath?
A person who uses there hand to manipulate joints and muscles to treat injuries in
What does a chiropractor do?
Mainly work on the vertebrae column and they asses the whole body to make sure bones are in the correct position
What does an osteopath do?
Look at the whole body and may use deep massage to encourage full movement and improve the function of muscles ligaments and bones
What is a sprain?
Damage to a ligament usually caused by stretching too much
What is a fracture?
Damage to a bone, usually done by an accident or osteoporosis
What is an osteoporosis?
Its a condition where you have too little bone or too much bone is lost
What is a strain?
Damage to the muscle by Stretching and tearing
What causes a tendon to become inflamed?
Over use or ill fitting trainers
What happens when a cartilage is damaged?
Pain and difficulty in moving the joint
- may lead to osteoarthritis
What does keyhole surgery do?
Repair damaged joints
- speedy recovery as only small incisions are made so surrounding tissue is not damaged
What are used to replace joints?
Metal acts as the bone
Plastic acts as the cartilage
Why do certain materials have to be used in joint replacement?
Don’t cause body to react and they have to mimic the natural joint
How does a reflex actions occur?
Stimulant>receptor> sensory neurone> CNS > relay neurone> motor neurone> effector
What is a voluntary action?
When your brain thinks about what you want to do
What a reflex action?
It happens automatically and protects the body from danger. It happens rapidly
What do receptors detect in the body?
Detect changes in pH and CO2 levels
What are the effectors?
Muscles - cause something to move by contracting or relaxing
Hormones - release hormones
What is a synapse?
The gap between neurones where the electrical impulse stimulates the production of a chemical which crosses the gap
What are the things in your eye?
Conjunctiva Pupil Cornea Iris Choroid Optic nerve Sclera Retina Ciliary muscle Lens Suspensory ligaments
What doe the pupil do? What does the cornea do? What does the iris do? What does the optic nerve do? What does the retina do? What do the ciliary muscles do? What does the lens do? What does the suspensory ligaments do?
- opening in the iris to allow light into the eye
- transparent and bends the light rays towards the lens
- changes the size of pupil to control the amount of light entering the eye
- carries nerve impulses to the brain
- inner light sensitive layer containing rod cells that work in dim light and cone cells that detect colour and details
- change the thickens of the lens when focusing
- can change the shape to focus light on the retina
- hold the lens in place
What is the choroid?
The black layer containing lots of blood vessels
What is the sclera?
The tough protective coat
If the object is distant is the lens thin or fat?
Thin
If the object is close is the lens fat or thin?
Fat
What happens when your short sighted?
The eyeball is to long so the light focuses in front of the retina
- it can be fixed with a concave lens
What happens when you are long sighted?
The eyeball is too short or has a flat cornea so the light focuses behind the retina
- convex lens
What is an optometrist?
A person who performs eye tests to check if you can focus properly
What is a cataract and how do you fix it?
The lens becomes too cloudy due to a build up of protein so you can replace it with a clear lens
What is age related damage on the cornea and how do you fix it?
The damage on the cornea means that light cannot pass through to the retina so healthy tissue from a donor is needed to replace a layer of cells
What is retinopathy?
Its damage to the small blood vessels in the retina due to high blood pressure or diabetes to test this puff air into the eye
Where are hormones produced?
Endocrine glands
What do hormones do?
Control body processes
How do hormones go around the body?
Chemical changes in the blood or nerve impulses stimulate the endocrine gland to release a hormone. The hormone goes into to blood and travels via the blood to the target organ which will respond
When is the whole body affected by hormones?
When the pituitary gland releases growth hormone
- bones in children and muscles as adults
Can hormones be long or short term?
Both
- adrenaline - for a few moments
- growth hormone - permanent
If you have too much or too little hormone is it bad?
Yes
E.g too little insulin can result in diabetes
What is the function of the thyroid gland?
It makes thyroxin which regulates metabolism if we have too little are chemical reactions are slower
What is the function of the pituitary gland?
Makes other hormones and controls growth, water balance and sperm and egg production
It also makes hormones that control other endocrine glands
What does the pancreas do?
Makes insulin and glucagon
What do the ovaries do?
Make oestrogen and progesterone these control the menstrual cycle and develop females in puberty
What does the testes do?
Make testosterone and develop males in puberty
What do the adrenal glands do?
Make adrenaline which helps the body cope in an emergency it affects the liver heart and lungs
What causes type 1 diabetes?
When the pancreas stops producing insulin this usually happens in young people and very quickly
What happens in type 2 diabetes?
It builds up gradually because the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or the liver and other cells become insulin resistant and do not absorb sugar
How do you control type 1 diabetes?
Healthy diet and insulin injections
How do you control type 2 diabetes?
Weigh control, diet, physical activity and if that doesn’t work medication
Why cant insulin be given as a hormone?
Because the hormone is made of protein and it would be dangerous
How can insulin be given?
Injected
Inhaled
Watched have microjets which put insulin in at timed intervals
Genetic engineering
What did Banting and Best do?
Extracted insulin
How did Banting and Best extract insulin?
Banting realised that digestive juices in the pancreas destroyed the hormone
- they tied off the pancreatic duct in dogs so the cells producing digestive juices were stopped, the cells called islet cells were removed and mashed up then injected into the diabetic dogs; the dogs recovered
How is blood sugar controlled?
- insulin and glucagon are produced in cells in the pancreas called islet
- beta cells in the islet have receptors which detect high concentrations of glucose stimulus
- the insulin is released in response to the stimulus
- the receptors on the surface of the liver cells and muscle and fat cells combine with the insulin and trigger cells to absorb glucose
- the fall in glucose stops the beta cells producing insulin
- the low glucose concentrations are detected by alpha cells in the islet resulting in glucagon secretions
What is negative feedback?
For example - insulin
- the pituitary gland releases ADH when the receptor - hypothalamus - this detects water content when it is too low. ADH travels to kidney and causes them to reabsorb more water reducing the volume of urine. The stimulus is removed so the pituitary stops producing ADH
