Human Geo Ch 10 Flashcards
what is a commodity chain
a series of links connecting the many places of production and distribution, resulting in a commodity that is then exchanged on the market
do all places on a commodity chain benefit equally from production of a good
no
what things are associated with the segment of global commodity chains located in the core
sophisticated technology, high skill levels, extensive research and development, and high salaries
what things are associated with the segment of global commodity chains located in the periphery
low technology, less education, little research and development, and lower wages
what does wealth depend on
what is produced, but also how and where it is produced
what does it mean to say a country is developing
progress is being made in technology, production, and socioeconomic well-being
what are the three major areas measured when measuring development
development in economic welfare, development in tech and production, and development in social welfare
what is the gross national product (GNP)
a measure of the total value of the officially recorded goods and services produced by the citizens and corporations of a country in a given year; includes things produced inside and outside of the country’s territory
what is gross domestic product (GDP)
measure of the total value of the officially recorded goods and services produced within a country within a given year
what is gross national income (GNI)
calculates the monetary worth of what is produced within a country plus income received from investments outside the country minus income payments to other countries around the world
what is the most common way to standardize data in order to compare GNI across countries
divide it by the population of the country; this yields per capita GDI
in what was in the GNI limited
only includes transactions in the formal economy, masks extremes in the distribution of wealth within a country, measures only outputs and doesnt take into account the non-monetary costs or production
what is the formal economy
the legal economy that governments tax and monitor
what is the informal economy
the uncounted or illegal economy that governments do not tax or keep track of, including everything from a garden plot in their back yard to the black market to the illegal drug trade
what level of economic development is signaled by a high percentage of laborers engaged in the production of food
a low overall level of economic development
what level of economic development is signaled by a high percentage of workers involved in tech industries and services
a high overall level of economic development
what does a more productive workforce point to
a higher level of mechanization in production
what is the dependence ratio
a measure of the number of dependents, young and old, that each 100 employed people must support
what can a higher dependency ratio result in
significant economic and social strain
what are some of the problems with the discussion of ways of measuring development
- the word developing suggests that all counties are improving their place in each of the indicators
- the development model does not take geographical differences very seriously
- has a western bias
- does not consider the ability of some countries to influence what happens in other countries, or the different positions countries occupy in the world economy
what are Rostow’s 5 stages of economic development
- Traditional
- Preconditions of takeoff
- Takeoff
- Drive to maturity
- High-mass consumption
what are the characteristics of a country in the traditional stage
subsistence farming
rigid social structure
technology is slow to change
what are the characteristics of a country in the preconditions of takeoff stage
new leadership moves the country towards greater flexibility, openness, and diversification
what are the characteristics of a country in the takeoff stage
industrial revolution
sustained growth takes hold
urbanization increases, industrialization proceeds, technological and mass-production breakthroughs occur
what are the characteristics of a country in the drive to maturity stage
technologies diffuse, industrial specialization occurs, international trade expands
population growth slows
what are the characteristics of a country in the high mass consumption stage
high incomes
widespread production of many goods and services
majority of workers entre the service sector of the economy
what is the major problem with rostow’s model
it provides no larger context to development; also leaves no room for cultural and political forces within a country
what does it mean that development happens in context
it reflects what is happening in a place as a result of forces operating concurrently at multiple scales
what is neo-colonialism
major world powers continue to control the economies of the poorer countries even though the poorer countries are now independent states
what is a structuralist theory
holds that difficult-to-change, large-scale economic arrangements shape what can happen in fundamental ways; example - poorer countries face a different set of developmental circumstances than those faced by western europe on which Rostow modeled his model
what is dependence theory
holds that the political and economic relationships between countries and regions of the world control and limit the possibilities of poorer areas
what is one thing dependence theorists argue
dependency of colonies on colonial powers helps sustain the prosperity of dominant regions and the poverty of other regions, even after decolonization occurs
what is dollarization
where a country’s currency is abandoned in favor of the dollar
what is an effect of dollarization
creates a significant link between the poor and wealthy countries’ economies
why do core processes generate wealth in a place
because they require higher levels of education, more sophisticated technologies, and higher wages and benefits
how is the core-periphery model fundamentally different from the modernization model
it holds that not all places can be equally wealthy on the capitalist world economy
what is the human development index
measurement of development that goes beyond economics and incorporates the three basic dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of living
what were the 8 millennium development goals
- eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
- Achieve universal primary education
- promote gender equality and empower women
- Reduce child mortality
- improve maternal health
- combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
- ensure environmental stability
- Develop a global partnership for development
what are the barriers to economic development
- social conditions
- foreign debt
- disease
- political corruption and instability
what are some social conditions that are barriers to economic development
- high birth rates and low life expectancies at birth
- not a lot of adults to support the huge young population
- inadequate nutrition
- lack of public sewage systems, clean drinking water, and access to health care
- lack of access to education
- education is often unequal with regard to gender
what is the lack of education for girls founded on and compounded by
the widespread assumption that girls will leave their homes and communities when they marry, no longer bringing income to the family
what is trafficking
happens when “adults and children fleeing poverty or seeking better prospects are manipulated, deceived, and bullied into working in conditions they would not choose
how did Rwanda improve access to education
eliminated fees for primary education and schools started receiving revenues for the number of students they were educating
what are some problems Rwanda is facing in increasing education
access and completion are 2 different things
don’t have adequate funding/space for growing populations
what are structural adjustment loans
part of a larger trend toward neoliberalism in the late 1900s; money lent to periphery and semi periphery countries by the world bank and the IMF; in order to secure the loans, countries had to agree to implement economic or governmental reforms, such as privatizing governmental entities, opening the country to foreign trade, reducing tariffs, and encouraging foreign direct investment
why/how is foreign debt a barrier to economic development
bc spending a large part of the country’s budget on debt repayment makes it difficult for a country to invest in more development projects
what factors have created a global debt crisis for the poorest countries in the world
- the cost of servicing their debts exceeds revenues from the export of goods and services
- the returns on development projects have been much lower than anticipated
what is neoliberalism
derives from the neoclassical economic idea that the government intervention into markets is inefficient and undesirable, and should be resisted wherever possible
what would happen if a substantial amount of countries were to default at the same time
a global economic crisis could ensue that would work to the disadvantage of almost everyone
how do high rates of disease and lack of adequate health care in periphery countries directly affect economic development
makes survival difficult and weakens labor force
what are vectored diseases
diseases spread by one host to another by an intermediate host or vector
where do infectious diseases spread most rapidly
warm, moist climates
what disease do experts refer to as “the silent tsunami”
malaria
what is malaria
an infectious disease spread by mosquitoes that carry the parasite in their saliva
how old are most of the victims of malaria
5 or under, making it a major factor in infant and child mortality
how can afflicted regions defeat malaria
by eliminating the vector (mosquitoes)
how did sri lanka attempt to defeat malaria
used a pesticide called DDT that practically wiped out mosquitoes and really lowered the death rate
what new problems did Sri Lanka’s attempt to eradicate malaria create
- DDT caused cancer and was bad for the environment
- the lower death rate led to a substantial rise in the population growth rate, which created new problems
why didn’t malaria eradication work in india
the mosquito population had the ability to rebound from the pesticide application
how are people trying to eradicate malaria today
- genetic interference
- insecticide-laden mosquito nets around sleeping quarters
what can lead to extreme political instability in a state
disenfranchisement of the poor and competing among the rich for control of the government
what kind of governments do periphery and semi-periphery countries usually have
alternate between quasi-democratic and military governments
what are politicians like in places rampant with poverty
often become corrupt, misuse aid, and exacerbate the plight of the poor
describer the wealth divide in periphery countries
a wide divide often exists between the very wealth and the poorest of the poor
why can corrupt leaders stay in power for decades in low income countries like Zimbabwe
bc the people are afraid to rise up against the leader’s extreme power or bc those who have risen up have been killed or harmed by the leader’s followers
what are export processing zones
EPZs; offer favorable tax, regulatory, and trade arrangements to foreign firms; periphery and semi-prihpery countries set them up to try and attract new industries
what are the two best known EPZs
maquiladoras and special economic zones
where do governments typically locate EPZs
in places with easy access to export markets
how did the maquiladora program start
the mexican government designated the region of northern mexico as a maquiladora district, making it a place where raw materials could be shipped into mexico, manufactured into raw goods, and then sent back to the US free of import tariffs
why did the maquiladora program take off in the 80s
american companies recognized the expanding wage and benefit differences between the US and mexican worker and began relocating to the maquiladora district
why are maquiladoras controversial
corporations that relocate there avoid the employment and environmental regulations that are in effect just a few miles to the north; workers are young and underpaid and work in environmentally questionable conditions
What did NAFTA do
prompted further industrialization of the border region; facilitated the movement of service industries from the US to Mexico, including data processing operations
where are most of the new maquiladoras located
Tijuana, linked to San Diego; and Ciudad Juarez liked to El Paso, TX
what is a special economic zone
SEZs; Area of a country where business and trade laws are different from the rest of the country
why would a country create an SEZ
To bring in businesses/investors from the developed world
Stimulate the economy
Provide work for their citizens
where were SEZs mostly located 20-30 years ago
southeast asia, china, india
where have SEZs become more common over the last 5 years
africa
why don’t SEZs always bring economic development
Corrupt governments
Debt to the developed country
Unhealthy ties to developed country
what does agriculture typically focus on in peripheral countries
personal consumption or production for a large agricultural conglomerate
why is little produced for local marketplaces even when modernized agricultural has developed in the periphery
bc distribution systems are poorly organized and because the local populations are typically unable to pay for foodstuffs
why is soil erosion commonplace in most peripheral areas
impoverished farmers cant afford fertilizers and education levels are typically too low to achieve widespread soil conservation
what does severe soil erosion in areas with dry or semi-arid climates cause
extreme degradation of the land and the spread of the desert into these lands
what is desertification
the process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture; exacerbated by humans destroying vegetation and eroding soils through the overuse of lands for livestock grazing or crop production
what continent has been hit hardest by desertification
africa
what leads some farmers to turn marginal, semi-arid lands into farm and ranch lands
land ownership patterns, the need for crops and protein sources, and power differences among groups of people
what is the result of intensive farming to increase agricultural production in semi-arid regions
land erosion, out migration, and conflict
what are the pros of the tourism industry
brings wealth and employment
what are some cons of the tourism
- sometimes imports or building materials and equipment strain the country’s supply system, and funds are diverted to hotel construction that could have been spent on other needs such as housing for citizens
- many hotels/tourist facilities are owned by large, multinational corporations that earn enormous profits that the host country doesn’t always see
- jobs are often low paying and have little job security
- strains fabric of local communities
- limits opportunities of local, small scale operators
- over reliance on tourism can also leave and economy vulnerable if shifting economic circumstances cause a sharp decline in the number of tourists or if natural disasters hit
what are some examples of countries that do earn a lot of money from toruism
Kenya, Thailand, Barbados, and Fiji
where does much of income a country receives from tourism go
reinvested in the construction of airports, cruise-ports, and other infrastructure that supports more tourism
what is “demonstration effect”
locals feel they have to behave in ways that may please or interest the visitors but that is disdained by the larger community
is wealth equally distributed across states (countries)
no
do all areas in a state (country) develop economically at the same rate
no
what governmental actions affect the distribution of wealth
tariffs, trade agreements, taxation structures, land ownership rules, environmental regulations, etc
what does it mean that every governmental policy has a geographical expression
some regions are favored, whereas others are disadvantaged as a result of the implementation of that policy
what are 2 examples of how governments determine patterns of wealth
- in rural wisconsin, farmers are educated and work on highly mechanized farms, whereas in rural Appalachia, farmers have limited education and there is little mechanization; this is in part due to government policies that influence educational opportunities, provide subsidies for particular agricultural pursuits, and promote the development of particular technologies
- in new orleans, the Ninth Ward was so devastated by flooding in part bc of gov decisions decades ago to build levies and settle flood-prone areas and gov policies that affected housing, the construction of business, etc. the gov also had a limited response in rebuilding the 9th ward
how can government policy help alleviate uneven development
- create commissions to address poverty, invest money in roads, schools, health-care facilities, and water and sewer systems
what did the US do to protect clothing items produced in the US
established quotas on how many items from various clothing categories can be imported into the US from China and other countries
what was an unintended consequence of the quota system
a “quota market” that allows countries to buy and sell their US quota numbers to producers in other countries
what is the main thing that quota laws do
affect whether and how regions can produce and exchange goods on the global market
where do governments often prioritize the creation of wealth
the capital city
what goals do newly independent states have in building new capital cities away from the colonial headquarters
- separate themselves from their colonizers
- bring together diverse groups into one state with a city built to reflect their common culture
- to extend economic development into the interior of the state
- to help establish control over a region with a population whose loyalties might not be to the state
how can corporations make cities focal points of economic development
by concentrating corporate activities in a particular place; they often build up the cities near the resources they are extracting or near manufacturing centers they have built
what is an island of development
when a government or corporation builds up and concentrates economic development in a certain city or small region
what is one of the greatest challenges to development
creating development opportunities outside of islands of development
what are nongovernmental organizations
NGOs; not run by state or local governments; operate independently and as a non profit
what is a parallel state
when a country has so many NGOs that they are financed by foreigners and accountable to nobody
what is one kind of program by NGOs that has found success in south asia and south america
a microcredit program
what is a microcredit program
gives loans to poor people, particularly women, to encourage development of small businesses
what does providing microcredit to women do
- can alter the gender balance in a region, giving more fiscal power to women
- can lower birth rates in parts of developing countries
- can alter the social fabric of cultures by diminishing men’s positions of power
- alleviate malnourishment, as women with incomes can feed themselves and their children
where have microcredit programs been less successful
in places with high mortality rates from diseases such as AIDs
why are microcredit programs less successful in places with high mortality rates from diseases such as AIDs
bc if the borrower is unable to work or if the family has medical and funeral bills, the borrower is much more likely to default on the microcredit loan
