Hormones Flashcards
1
Q
how many glands in the endocrine system
A
eight
2
Q
liquid chemical messengers
A
hormones
3
Q
produced and secreted in the blood when levels of glucose in blood becomes too high
A
insulin
4
Q
is any member of a class of signaling molecules in multicellular organisms, that are transported to distant organs to regulate physiology and behavior.
A
hormone
5
Q
hormone means
A
setting in motion
6
Q
are required for the correct development of animals, plants, and fungi.
A
hormones
7
Q
Among the substances that can be considered hormones are
A
eicosanoids
amino acid derivatives
protein/peptides
steroids
8
Q
example of hormones
A
prostaglandins
thromboxanes
9
Q
amino acid example
A
epinephrine
auxin
10
Q
protein/peptides example
A
insulin
11
Q
In ___, hormones are responsible for the regulation of many physiological processes and behavioral activities such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress induction, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood manipulation.
A
vertebrates
12
Q
In ___, hormones modulate almost all aspects of development, from germination to senescence
A
plants
13
Q
When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a _____ _____pathway that typically activates gene transcription, resulting in increased expression of target proteins.
A
signal transduction
14
Q
generally act on the surface of target cells via second messengers.
A
water soluble hormones
15
Q
water soluble hormones examples
A
peptides
amines
16
Q
generally pass through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei.
A
lipid-soluble hormones
17
Q
example of lipid soluble hormones
A
steroids and eicosanoids
18
Q
can also act in rapid, non-genomic pathways that can be synergistic with genomic effects
A
hormones
19
Q
are cellular processes that can lead to rapid cellular responses within seconds.
A
non genomic pathways
20
Q
are mediated by nuclear receptors that regulate genes
A
genomic pathways
21
Q
are specialized organs that secrete hormones into the endocrine signaling system.
A
endocrine glands
22
Q
occurs in response to specific biochemical signals and is often subject to negative feedback regulation.
A
hormone secretion
23
Q
For instance, high blood sugar (serum glucose concentration) promotes ____ ___
A
insulin snythesis
24
Q
acts to reduce glucose levels and maintain homeostasis, leading to reduced glucose levels.
A
insulin
25
Upon secretion, ___-soluble hormones are readily transported through the circulatory system.
water
26
must bond to carrier plasma glycoproteins (e.g., thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)) to form ligand-protein complexes
lipid-soluble hormones
27
what carrier does lipid-soluble hormones must bond to
carrier plasma glycoproteins
28
example of carrier plasma glycoproteins
thyroxine-binding globulin
29
Lipid-soluble hormones must bond to carrier plasma glycoproteins (e.g., thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)) to form
ligand-protein complexes
30
Some hormones are completely active when released into the bloodstream
what example
insulin
growth hormones
31
that must be activated in specific cells through a series of activation steps that are commonly highly regulated
prohormones
32
secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream, typically via fenestrated capillaries
endocrine system
33
endocrine system secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream, typically via
fenestrated capillaries
34
are a type of blood vessel. They have tiny pores that allow nutrients, waste and oxygen to flow from the blood to the organs.
fenestrated capillaries
35
secretes its hormones indirectly using ducts
exocrine system
36
Hormones with ___ function diffuse through the interstitial spaces to a nearby target tissue.
paracrine
37
a term used in cellular biology to describe a type of cell signaling where a cell secretes a signal to change the behavior of nearby cells
paracrine
38
lack specialized organs for the secretion of hormones, although there is a spatial distribution of hormone production
plants
39
is produced mainly at the tips of young leaves and in the shoot apical meristem
auxin
40
The lack of specialized glands means that the main site of hormone production cannot/can change throughout the life of a plant
can
41
and the site of production is dependent on the plant's
what two factors
age
environment
42
chemical messengers synthesized at one location that deliver messages to a different location
hormones
43
5 main types of hormones that influence plant growth
auxin
gibberellin
cytokinin
ethylene
abscisic acid
44
hormones that allows plants to bend towards the light
auxin
45
is the way plants and other organisms grow in response to light.
phototropism
46
the directional growth or turning of an organism in response to an external stimulus
tropism
47
where is auxin synthesized
stem tips
48
required for a plant to germinate
gibberellins
49
promote elongation of internodes
gibberellins
50
stem between notes
internodes
51
counters senescence in plants
cytokinin
52
produced in the root apical meristem
cytokinin
53
tips of the roots where cytokinin is produced
root apical meristem
54
uses this ratio to determine if the plant develops roots or shoots
cytokinin:auxin
55
more auxin promotes the formation of
roots
56
more cytokinin promotes the formation of
shoots
57
works with ethylene to cause the abscission of leaves, flowers, and fruits
cytokinin
58
ripens fruits
ethylene
59
gaseous, with low solubility in water
ethylene
60
more produced by rapidly growing and dividing cells
ethylene
61
important in germinating plants, preventing leaf expansion
ethylene
62
allows shoots to dig upward through the tsoil until it reaches llight
ethylene
63
hormone that signals dehydration
abscisic acid
64
synthesized in the chloroplast to makes leaves close their stomata to prevent water loss through phototranspiration
abscisic acid
65
a substance which produced in any one part of an organism, is transferred to another part and there influences a specific physiological prcoess
hormone
66
term hormone is derived from the greek word "___"
hormao
67
hormao means
to excite
68
the tissues where hormones are produced are called as
effectors
69
tissue or organs which hormoens exert their influence are called as
targets
70
hormones are produced in
duct-less glands/endocrine glands
71
hormone is a ___-cellular messenger
intra
72
what medium are hormones transported in from endocrine cell
blood
73
target cell has specific ___ to recognize homrone
receptor
74
have low molecular weight and diffuse readily
hormones
75
readily oxidized and their effects do not remain permanent unless supplied continuously
hormones
76
hormones are classified based on (2)
chemical nature
mechanism of action on target cell
77
chemically, hormones are group as (3)
protein or peptide hormones
steroid hormones
amino acid derivatives
78
example of protein or peptide hormones
insulin
glucagon
antidiuretic hormone
oxytocin
79
example of steroid hormones
glucocorticoids
mineralocorticoid
sex hormones
80
example of amino acid derivatives
epinephrine
norepinephrine
thyroxine
triiodothyronine
81
hormones based on mechanism of action on target cell (2)
group 1 hormones
group 2 hormones
82
bind to intracellular complexes, which then binds to the DNA and activates transcription of certain genes
group I hormones
83
bind to cell surface receptors and stimulate release of second messengers
group II hormones
84
group II hormones are further divided based on the type of group II messenger released on target cells (3)
cAMP
phosphatidylinositol/calcium
uncharacterized
85
all steroid hormones and amino acid derivatives fall in the category of
lipophilic
86
protein or peptide hormones are __
hydrophilic
87
steroid hormones and amino acid derivatives fall in what group of hormones
group I hormones
88
group I hormones are lipophilic/hydrophilic
lipophilic
89
group II hormones are lipophilic/hydrophilic
hydrophilic
90
protein or peptide hormones are what type of homrones
group II hormones
91
lipophilic hormone action
endocrine gland releases lipophilic hormone
hormones travels in the blood and reaches target cell (receptor is present in the cell nucleus)
cell is lipophilic so it can easily enter the cell through the cell membrane and through the nuclear pore
binds to the receptor and forms hormone receptor complex
complex binds to DNA and activates transcription to induce desired effect
92
hormones that act in the mechanisms of lipophilic hormone action
estrogens
progestins
androgens
glucocorticoids
mineralocorticoids
calcitriol
thyroid hormones
93
hydrophilic hormone action
endocrine gland releases hydrophilic hormone
hormone travels in the blood and reaches target cell
receptor of hydrophilic hormone is present in the cell membrane
hormone cannot enter the cell since it is hydrophilic
receptor induces the release of 2nd messengers (cAMP/phosphatidylinositol/calcium)
2nd messengers activates or deactives cellular enzymes to induce desired effect
94
hormones that undergo hydrophilic hormone action
Adenocotricotropic homrone (ACTH)
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
luteinizing hormone (LH)
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
glucagon
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
calcitonin
epinephrine
norepinephrine
insulin
gastrin
95
major endocrine glands found in the body
pineal gland
pituitary gland
thyroid gland
pancreas
adrenal glands
testis (male)
ovary (female)
96
endocrine gland found in the head
pineal
pituitary gland
97
endocrine gland located in the neck
thyroid gland
98
gland located in the abdomen
pancreas
adrenal gland
99
steps in hormone signaling
Biosynthesis of a particular hormone in a particular tissue
Storage and secretion of the hormone
Transport of the hormone to the target cell(s)
Recognition of the hormone by an associated cell membrane or intracellular receptor protein
Relay and amplification of the received hormonal signal via a signal transduction process: This then leads to a cellular response. The reaction of the target cells may then be recognized by the original hormone-producing cells, leading to a down-regulation in hormone production. This is an example of a homeostatic negative feedback loop.
Breakdown of the hormone.
100
are typical of a specialized cell type, residing within a particular endocrine gland, such as the thyroid gland, ovaries, and testes.
hormone producing cells
101
Hormones exit their cell of origin via ___ or another means of membrane transport.
exocytosis
102
refers to the fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane and results in the discharge of the vesicle content into the extracellular space and the incorporation of new proteins and lipids into the plasma membrane.
exocytosis
103
communication of ten invloves a signal sent from one location to another that instructs the second organ about the status of some cellular feature
insulin signalling
104
is a process that involves the use of signaling proteins and molecules to relay information within a cell and to the mitochondria
cytoplasmic signalling
105
process that occur when phosphate binds itself on the receptors during insulin signalling
autophosphorylation
106
are made of a chain of amino acids that can range from just 3 to hundreds of amino acids.
peptide hormones
107
Examples of peptide hormones
oxytocin and insulin.
108
Their sequences are encoded in DNA and can be modified by alternative splicing and/or post-translational modification.
peptide hormones
109
They are packed in vesicles and are hydrophilic, meaning that they are soluble in water.
peptides
110
they can only bind to receptors on the membrane, as traveling through the membrane is unlikely.
peptide hormones
111
some of them can bind into intracellular receptors through an intracine mechanism
peptide hormones
112
refer to hormones that are produced and act inside the same cell.
intracine
113
are derived from an amino acid, most commonly tyrosine.
amino acid hormones
114
stored in vesicles
amino acid hormones
115
example of amino acid hormones
melatonin
thyroxine
116
are derived from cholestero
steroid hormones
117
example of steroid hormones
estradiol
tesosterone
cortisol
118
how many fused rings does steroid have
four fused rings
119
are lipophilic and hence can cross membranes to bind to intracellular nuclear receptors.
steroid hormones
120
are derived from lipids such as arachidonic acid, lipoxins, and prostaglandins.
eicosanoid hormones
121
example of eicosanoids
prostaglandins
thromboxane
122
hormones that are produced by cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases
eicosanoid
123
are hydrophobic and act on membrane receptors.
eicosanoid
124
form most of body's hormones
proteins/polypeptides
125
Receptors for most peptides as well as many eicosanoid hormones are embedded in the plasma membrane at the surface of the cell and the majority of these receptors belong to the
G protein-coupled recptor class
126
The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell, described as
signal transduction
127
often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers (e.g., cyclic AMP).
signal transduction
128
For steroid or thyroid hormones, their receptors are located inside the cell within the ___of the target cell.
cytoplasm
129
first step of protein synthesis.
mRNA synthesis
130
EFFECTS OF HORMONES ON THE BODY
stimulation or inhibition of growth
wake-sleep cycle and other circadian rhythms
mood swings
induction or suppression of apoptosis (programmed cell death)
activation or inhibition of the immune system
regulation of metabolism
preparation of the body for mating, fighting, fleeing, and other activity
preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as puberty, parenting, and menopause
control of the reproductive cycle
hunger cravings
131
may also regulate the production and release of other hormones.
hormone
132
Hormone signals control the internal environment of the body through
homeostasis
133
The rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a
homeostatic negative feedback control mechanism
134
Thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by the overproduction of an "___" of the hormone.
effect
135
Blood glucose levels are maintained at a constant level in the body by a ___feedback mechanism.
negative
136
When the blood glucose level is too high, the pancreas secretes ____and when the level is too low, the pancreas then secretes ___.
insulin
glucagon
137
Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by:
other hormones
plasma concentration of ions or nutrients
neurons and mental activity
environmental changes, e.g. of light or temperature
138
One special group of hormones is the ___ hormones that stimulate the hormone production of other endocrine glands.
tropic
139
are hormones that have other endocrine glands as their target
tropic hormones
140
Most tropic hormones are produced and secreted by the
anterior pituitary gland
141
causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid
thyroid stimulating hormone
142
To release active hormones quickly into the circulation, hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and store biologically inactive hormones in the form of
pre or prohormones
143
which cells produce and store prehormones
hormone biosynthethic cells
144
are considered to act as local hormones.
eicosanoids
145
considered to be "local" because they possess specific effects on target cells close to their site of formation
eicosanoids
146
have a rapid degradation cycle, making sure they do not reach distant sites within the body.
eicosanoids
147
Hormones are also regulated by receptor
agonists
148
are ligands, which are any kind of molecules that produce a signal by binding to a receptor site on a protein.
hormones
149
any kind of molecules that produce a signal by binding to a receptor site on a protein
ligans
150
Hormone effects can be inhibited, thus regulated, by ___ ____s that bind to the same target receptor as the hormone in question.
competing lignds
151
These competing ligands are called ___of the hormone.
antagonist
152
what hormone is produced by the pineal gland
melatonin
153
function of melatonin
biological clock
154
FSH/LH
ADH
Growth hormone
Oxytocin
Prolactin
are produced where?
Thyroid gland
155
target organ of FSH/LH
ovaries
156
function of FSH and LH
menstrual cycle
157
target organ and function of ADH
kidneys
osmoregulation
158
target organ and function of growth hormone
uterus
growth and division
159
target organ and function of oxytocin
breast tissue
birth contractions
160
target organ and function of prolactin
many others
milk production
161
target organ and function of thyroxin
liver
metabolic rate
162
thyroxin is produced where
thyroid gland
163
adrenal glands produce which hormones (2)
adrenaline
cortisol
164
target organ and function of adrenaline
many
fight or flight
165
target organ and function of cortisol
many
anti-stress
166
pancreas produces which hormone
insulin
glucagon
167
target organ and function of insulin and glucagon
liver
blood sugar levels
168
ovaries produce which hormone
estrogen
progesterone
169
target organ and function of estrogen and progesterone
uterus
menstrual cycle
170
testes produce which hormone
testosterone
171
target organ and function of testes
many
male characteristics
172
consume a very small fraction of the total steroids available in the organism,
steroid hormones
173
five principles classes of steroids
progestins
glucocorticoids
mineralocorticoids
estrogens
androgens
174
all steroids are derived from
cholesterol
175
steroid hormones that are active during pregnancy
progestins
176
steroid hormones that promotes the synthess of glucose and suppressing inflammatory reactions
glucocorticoids
177
steroid hormones that regulates ion balances
mineralocorticoids
178
steroid hormones that promotes female sex characteristics
estrogens
179
steroid hormones that male sex charactersitics
androgens
180
With the exception of progesterone, all of these closely related biologically active molecules have in common a shortened side chain in ring D and, in some cases, an oxidized OH group on ring A.
steroids
181
Except ___, steroids have closely related biologically active molecules that have in common a shortened side chain in ring D and, in some cases, an oxidized OH group on ring A.
progesterone
182
invoke changes in gene expression; that is, their action is to turn on or off the instructions issued by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to produce proteins that regulate the biosynthesis of other important proteins.
lipid hormones
183
are carried in the circulation bound singly to specific carrier proteins that target them to the cells in particular organs.
steroids
184
first step in protein biosynthesis.
DNA transcription
185
For steroids, the structural backbone is called the
steroidal nucleus
186
The chemical name of the steroidal nucleus is
peryhydrocyclopentanopheanthrene
187
Any compound that contains the steroidal nucleus is considered a
steroid
188
example of steroids
cholesterol
cortisone
estrogen
testosterone
189
important biological regulators that nearly always show dramatic physiological effects when they are administered to living organisms
steroids
190
are major components of biological membranes in eukaryotes
steroids
191
is the principal steroid of animals
cholesterol
192
the major steroid in fungi is
ergosterol
193
major steroid in plants
sitosterol
194
The characteristic feature of each of these three important molecules is ___ rigidly fused carbon rings forming the steroid nucleus and a hydroxyl (OH) group attached to the ___ring
four
first
195
This is a group of steroids that regulate events during pregnancy and are the precursors of the other steroid hormones
progestins
196
is secreted by the adrenal cortex as well as the gonads. It is secreted by the ovarian corpus luteum during the first ten weeks of pregnancy, followed by the placenta in the later phase of pregnancy.
progesterone
197
are synthetic forms of the body’s naturally occurring hormone progesterone
progestins
198
Progestins are synthetic forms of the body’s naturally occurring hormone
progesterone
199
were designed to interact with progesterone receptors in the body in order to produce progesterone-like effects.
progestins
200
Examples of progestins include natural or bioidentical progesterone such as
medroxyprogesterone acetate
norethisterone
201
is used for any natural or man-made substance that has properties similar to natural progesterone
progestin
202
There are ___ different types of progestins that may be found in combination birth control pills along with estrogen.
eight
203
are cholesterol-derived steroid hormones synthesized and secreted by the adrenal gland.
glucocorticoids
204
anti-inflammatory in all tissues
glucocorticoids
205
control the metabolism in muscles, fat, liver, and bone
glucocorticoids
206
also affect vascular tone
vascular tone
207
the contractile activity of vascular smooth muscle cells in the walls of small arteries and arterioles,
vascular tone
208
influences mood, behavior, and sleep-wakefulness cycle in the brain
clucocorticoids
209
are powerful medicines that fight inflammation and work with your immune system to treat a wide range of health problems. They control how your cells use sugar and fats. They also control inflammation.
glucocorticoids
210
example of glucocorticoids
cortisol
cortisone
prednisone
dexamethasone hydrocortisone
211
are a class of steroid hormones that regulate salt and water balances.
mineralocorticoids
212
promote sodium and potassium transport usually followed by changes in water balance.
mineralocorticoids
213
group of steroids that regulates ion balances between the interior and the exterior of the cell.
mineralocorticoids
214
is the primary example of a mineralocorticoid
aldosterone
215
where is aldosterone produced
zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex
216
It also acts on the kidneys particularly involved in the reabsorption of sodium ions as well as the passive reabsorption of water.
aldosterone
217
is a group of any natural or synthetic hormone that regulates the development and maintenance of male characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors
androgen
218
esponsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in men, including facial and body hair growth, and voice change
androgens
219
affect bone and muscle development
androgens
220
The principal examples of androgens are (2)
testosterone
androstenedione
221
is produced mainly by the testes
testosterone
222
are produced primarily from the adrenal glands
androgens
223
this can also play roles in converting weak adrogens to more potent ones
peripheral tissues (fat and skin)
224
is a class of sex hormones that is responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics such as the development of breasts and pubic hair
estrogen
225
also contributes to cognitive health, bone health, the function of the cardiovascular system, and other essential bodily processes.
estrogen
226
There are three major endogenous estrogens that have estrogenic hormonal activity namely
estrone
estradiol
estriol
227
is the main sex hormone responsible for sexual and reproductive development.
estrogen
228
estrogen is produced in (3)
ovaries
adrenal glands
fat tissues
229
target organs of glucocorticoids
liver
retina
kidney
oviduct
pituitary
230
target organs of estrogen
oviduct
liver
231
target organs of progesterone
oviduct
uterus
232
target organs of androgens
prostate
kidney
oviduct
233
there are two types of hormones that are hydrophobic in nature
steroids
eicosanoids
234
consist of three types of locally acting signaling molecules derived biosynthetically from C20 polyunsaturated fatty acids, principally called arachidonic acid.
eicosnaoids
235
eicosanoids consist of three types of locally acting signaling molecules derived biosynthetically from C20 polyunsaturated fatty acids, principally called
arachidonic acids
236
Twenty-carbon fatty acids are all known collectively as
eicosanoid acids
237
three types of eicosanoids
prostaglandins
thromboxanes
leukotrienes
238
are synthesized from different cell types such as blood cells, endothelial cells, and connective tissue cells.
eicosanoids
239
Eicosanoids are synthesized from different cell types such as
blood cells
endothelial cells
connective tissue cells
240
They are typically not stored within cells but rather synthesized as required.
eicosanoids
241
eicosanoids are derived from
fatty acids that make the cell membrane and nuclear membrane
242
The eicosanoids interact with specific cell surface receptors to produce a variety of different effects on different tissues, but generally, they cause (3)
inflammatory response
change in blood pressure
affect the clotting of blood
243
For prostaglandins, the basic chemical structure common to these compounds is a 20-carbon carboxylic acid called
prostanoic acid
244
represent a family of fatty acid derivatives which have a variety of potent biological actions of a hormonal or regulatory nature
prostaglandin
245
who coined the term prostaglandins
Ulf von Euler
246
was coined by Ulf von Euler for this lipid-soluble acidic substance because they are found in the seminal plasma, prostate gland, and seminal vesicles.
prostaglandins
247
In very small amounts, ___lower blood pressure and stimulate some smooth muscles to contract.
prostaglandins
248
There are at least __ different prostaglandins in human seminal plasma.
14
249
are named according to their ring substituents, and the number of additional side chain double bonds which have cis-configuration.
prostaglandins
250
Prostaglandins are named according to their ring substituents, and the number of additional side chain double bonds which have ___-configuration.
cis
251
In multicellular organisms (eukaryotes), the internal mechanisms that control and coordinate basic biochemical reactions are connected to other cells by means of
nerves and chemical messengers
252
The overall process of receiving these messages and converting the information they contain into metabolic and physiological effects is known as
signal transduction
253
Many of the chemical messengers are ___and are thus of special interest here
lipids
254
With the exception of the ____ hormones, most hormones such as insulin and glucagon interact with a receptor on the cell surface.
steroid
255
The activated receptor then generates so-called ___ messengers within the cell that transmit the information to the biochemical systems whose activities must be altered to produce a particular physiological effect.
second messengers
256
The magnitude of the end effect is generally proportional to the ___ of the second messengers.
concentration
257
Activation of ___C by one of the agents listed in the table causes the hydrolysis of a minor membrane phospholipid, phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate.
phosphalipase
258
What does diacylglycerol activate without leaving the membrane bilayer
Diacylglycerol activates the membrane-bound enzyme, protein kinase C.
259
What is the role of protein kinase C in cellular signaling?
Protein kinase C catalyzes the addition of phosphate groups to a soluble protein.
260
: What is the significance of the soluble protein phosphorylated by protein kinase C?
The soluble protein is the first member of a reaction sequence leading to an appropriate physiological response in the cell.
261
What other product is generated from the hydrolysis of phospholipase C besides diacylglycerol?
The other product is triphosphoinositol
262
What effect does triphosphoinositol have in the cell?
Triphosphoinositol causes the release of calcium from intracellular stores
263
Why is calcium important for protein kinase C activation?
Calcium, along with triacylglycerol, is required for the activation of protein kinase C.
